T3 


THE   RAILWAY   CONQUEST 
OF  THE  WORLD 


•  : 


V  « 


[Frontispiece 
WHERE    THE    UNION    PACIFIC   RAILWAY   STRIKES   ACROSS    SALT    LAKE 

The  "cut  off"  across  the  water  is  27  miles  in  length,  of  which  15  miles 
are  represented  by  solid  earth  embankment. 


CONQUESTS  OF  SCIENCE 


THE 

RAILWAY  CONQUEST 
OF  THE  WORLD 


BY 

FREDERICK  A.  TALBOT 

AUTHOR  OF 
1  THE  NEW  GARDEN  OF  CANADA,"  "THE  MAKING  OF  A  GREAT  CANADIAN  RAILWAY,"  &C. 


ILLUSTRATED 


PHILADELPHIA 

J.    B.    LIPPINCOTT    COMPANY 
LONDON:  WILLIAM  HEINEMANN 


Copyright  London  JQII  by  William  Heincmann 


PREFACE 

THERE  is  the  unfathomable  fascination  of  romance  con- 
nected with  the  construction  of  great  railways,  though 
little  is  known  of  the  beginning  and  the  growth  of  the 
great  trunk  roads  of  the  world;  of  the  heavy  tax  which 
their  construction  imposed  upon  the  ingenuity,  skill  and 
resource  of  their  builders.  Speeding  along  swiftly  in  a 
luxurious  Pullman  car  over  a  road-bed  as  smooth  as  an 
asphalt  pavement  conveys  no  impression  of  the  perils  and 
dangers  faced  or  of  the  infinite  labour  expended  in  the 
making  of  that  steel  highway.  To-day  the  earth  is  girdled 
with  some  700,000  miles  of  railways,  and  there  are  few 
countries  in  which  the  locomotive  has  not  made  its 
appearance. 

This  volume  has  been  written  with  the  express  purpose 
of  telling  in  a  popular  manner  this  story  of  romance.  It 
is  obviously  impossible  to  deal  with  every  great  railway 
undertaking  in  the  compass  of  a  single  volume;  but  those 
described  may  safely  be  considered  representative,  and 
they  are  the  largest  and  most  interesting  enterprises 
between  the  two  poles. 

In  the  writing  of  this  volume  I  have  been  assisted 
by  innumerable  friends  who  have  been  identified  closely 
with  the  introduction  of  Stephenson's  invention  into 
fresh  fields  of  conquest.  I  am  indebted  especially  to 
the  following  gentlemen  :  Messrs.  Norman  B.  Dickson, 
M.INST.C.E.  ;  A.  M.  Cleland,  the  Northern  Pacific  Rail- 
way Company;  the  late  J.  C.  Meredith,  chief  engineer, 
the  Florida  East  Coast  Railway;  A.  L.  Lawley;  R.  R. 
Gales,  M.INST.C.E.;  H.  E.  Gwyther,  chief  engineer, 

vii 

233303 


viii  PREFACE 

the  Leopoldina  Railway  Company,  Ltd.;  Francis  B. 
Clarke,  president  of  the  Spokane,  Portland  and  Seattle 
Railway;  William  Hood,  chief  engineer,  the  Southern 
Pacific  Company;  F.  A.  Miller,  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee 
and  Puget  Sound  Railway;  the  I.  R.  Austrian  Railway 
Ministry ;  W.  Weston,  the  Denver,  North-western  and 
Pacific  Railway  Company;  the  Pennsylvania  Steel  Com- 
pany; W.  T.  Robson,  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway 
Company;  the  Cleveland  Bridge  and  Engineering  Com- 
pany, and  Frederic  Coleman  of  Darlington;  the  Swiss 
Federal  Railways;  H.  R.  Charlton,  the  Grand  Trunk 
Railway  Company  of  Canada ;  the  chief  engineer,  the  New 
Zealand  Government  Railways ;  the  Peruvian  Corporation  ; 
the  chief  engineers  of  the  New  South  Wales,  South 
Australia  and  West  Australia  Government  Railways;  the 
Minister  of  Ways  of  Communication  of  the  Russian 
Empire;  the  Trans-Andine  Railway  Company;  the  chief 
engineer,  the  Imperial  Japanese  Government  Railways; 
J.  J.  Gywn,  chief  engineer,  and  S.  K.  Hooper,  the  Denver 
and  Rio  Grande  Railway;  G.  J.  Ray,  chief  engineer,  the 
Delaware,  Lackawanna  and  Western  Railroad;  Virgil  G. 
Bogue,  vice-president  and  chief  engineer,  the  Western 
Pacific  Railway  Company;  and  S.  J.  Ellison  of  the  Great 
Northern  Railway,  U.S.A. 

FREDERICK  A.  TALBOT. 
HOVE, 
September  29,  1911. 


CONTENTS 


CHAP.  PAGE 

I  THE   RAILWAY   SURVEYOR'S    ADVENTUROUS    LIFE     .  .  I 

II  THE   ROMANCE   OF    CONSTRUCTION  .  .  .  .12 

III  THE   BORING   OF   THE   GOTTHARD   TUNNEL      ...         30 

IV  THE   RAILWAY   INVASION   OF   CANADA     ....         46 

V      THE    FIRST    TRANS-CONTINENTAL    ACROSS    THE    UNITED 

STATES 59 

VI  THE  LONGEST  "TOY"  RAILWAY 76 

VII  THE  WONDERS  OF  THE  TYROL  .....  88 

VIII  THE  RECLAMATION  OF  ALASKA IO2 

IX  THE  HOLY  RAILWAY  TO  MECCA Iiy 

X  THE  HIGHEST  LINE  IN  THE  WORLD  .  .  .  .128 

xi     CECIL   RHODES'   DREAM — FROM    THE   CAPE  TO   CAIRO 

(l.    NORTHWARDS    FROM   CAPE   TOWN)          .  .  .139 

xii    CECIL   RHODES'   DREAM — FROM   THE   CAPE  TO   CAIRO 

(ll.    SOUTHWARDS    FROM    CAIRO)          .  .  .  .       152 

XIII      GRIDIRONING   THE   ROCKY   MOUNTAINS  162 

| 

XIV  THE    IRON    HORSE   IN   AUSTRALASIA  (l.)  .  .  -175 

XV  THE    IRON    HORSE    IN    AUSTRALASIA    (ll.)          .  .  .       1 86 

XVI  ACROSS    SIBERIA    BY    RAIL 198 

XVII  THE    LEOPOLDINA    RAILWAY 214 

XVIII      THE    FIRST    CANADIAN    TRANS-CONTINENTAL    RAILWAY    .       224 

ix 


x  CONTENTS 

CHAP.  PAGE 

XIX      A    RAILWAY    OVER   THE    SEA              .            .            ,            .  .       240 

XX      THE    LAND   OF    REMARKABLE    RAILWAY    BRIDGES     .  .250 

XXI      WHERE   THE   SNOW-PLOUGH   WORKS    IN    SUMMER    .  .260 

XXII      FROM    BUENOS   AIRES    TO   VALPARAISO   OVERLAND  .       270 

XXIII  A  LITTLE-KNOWN  CENTRAL  AFRICAN  RAILWAY    .  .281 

XXIV  THE  INVASION  OF  THE  FAR  EAST  (l.  EARLY  DAYS  IN 

CHINA)   .        .        *      ' ,        *        .        .        .  .     289 

XXV    THE    INVASION    OF    THE    FAR    EAST    (ll.    MODERN 

DEVELOPMENTS    IN    CHINA   AND   JAPAN)     .            .  .       297 

XXVI      THE   CONQUEST    OF   THE   CASCADE    MOUNTAINS        .  .       308 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

To  face  page 

Where  the  Union  Pacific  Railway  strikes  across  Salt  Lake  Frontispiece 

Building  the  loftiest  bridge  in  the  world 6 

Driving  a  cutting  100  feet  deep  by  the  aid  of  dynamite  and  steam 

shovels    through  slate  on    the    Delaware,   Lacka wanna  and 

Western  Railway,  U.S. A 7 

A  Railway  Construction  Camp  among  the  mountains  16 

Building  a  high  bank  on  the  Delaware,  Lackawanna  and  Western 

Railway,  U.S.A.,  by  modern  methods 16 

The  huge  steam  shovel  which  takes  some  3  tons  of  spoil  with 

every  bite  .  17 

The  drag-line  shovel  which  scoops  up  the  earth  in  the  cutting  as  it 

is  pulled  along     .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .17 

The  Pecos  Viaduct  on  the  "  Sunset"  Railway,  the  highest  structure 

in  the   United   States,  the   track   being  321    feet  above  the 

water  below 24 

The  track  layer,  whereby  the  metals  are  laid  at  a  speed  of  3  or  4 

miles  a  day,  crossing  a  heavy  timber  trestle  .  .  .  .25 
The  Goschenen  entrance  to  the  St.  Gotthard  Tunnel  ...  32 
The  wonderful  Wassen  Loop  on  the  St.  Gotthard  Railway,  showing 

three  tiers  of  track 33 

The  compressed  air  locomotive  which  hauled  workmen  and  rock 

blasted  from  the  mountain  in  the  cutting  of  the  Loetschberg 

Tunnel         ...........       36 

What  the  working  face  in  the  heart  of  the  mountain  is  like  .  .  36 
The  lofty  Amsteg  Bridge,  184  feet  high,  spanning  the  Maderan 

Valley  on  the  St.  Gotthard  Railway 37 

No.  2,  "The  Toronto,"  the  first  railway  engine  built  in  Canada 

by  James  Good  in  1853 48 

The  Niagara  Cantilever  Railway  Bridge  under  construction  .  .  48 

"The  Eighth  Wonder  of  the  World" 49 

The  bridge  as  reconstructed       ........       49 

The  magnificent  single  span  bridge  across  the  Niagara  River 

below  the  Falls 50 

A  view  of  the  iron  tube,  2,290  feet  in  length  and  23  feet  in  diameter  5 1 


xii  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

To  face  page 

The  2000  h.p.   electric    locomotives    hauling  the   "International 

Limited  "  through  the  tube  .  .  .  .  *  .  .  51 
The  massive  bridge  of  the  Union  Pacific  Railway  over  the  Missouri 

River  at  Council   Bluffs,  from  which  point   the  first  railway 

across  the  United  States  was  commenced  .  .  .  .  62 
The  timber  trestle  across  Salt  Lake,  by  means  of  which  the  Union 

Pacific  saves  57  miles         ...        .        .        .        .        .       63 

Building  the  Otavi  line  through  the  German  South-west  African 

Bush    . x  f        .         .       80 

The  passage  of  the  first  train,  gaily  decorated  for  the  occasion,  over 

the "  toy-like "  Otavi  Railway      .        .        .        .        .        .        .      81 

The  workmen  cutting  and  blasting  a  narrow  path  on  the  steep 

mountain  slopes  for  the  Karawanken  Railway  ....  92 
The  massive  steel  bridge  which  carries  the  railway  across  the 

Drave  River  to  approach  the  tunnel  through  the  Karawanken 

range  in  the  background     .         ,';      .         .         ....       93 

The  northern  entrance  to  the  Karawanken  Tunnel  ....      93 

The  Tauern  Railway,  showing  winding  character  of  the  line  .  .96 
The  entrance  to  the  Tauern  Tunnel  .  .'  vi  \ ;  -'  ~j'y*  .'^ ;•'•»*.'•  .  96 
One  of  the  huge  loops  on  the  Tauern  *•':•]?'.%••?  w  4 ,A.»:*kU  ,v^n:  ^  ^ 
The  first  hour's  work  :  navvies  preparing  the  grade  along  the  main 

street  of  Skaguay  v  •  •  •  •  •  .  'i:?''v  V  .  106 
By  railway  to  the  Klondike — the  White  Pass  and  Yukon  line 

under  construction  .  *  y  "•,.*•'  .-.  -.  il-'-i*^  •]'»••» -•'  .  106 
The  dismal  tract  of  swamp  and  river  through  which  the  Alaskan 

Central  Railway  makes  its  way  ....  ^  "  v*  ••-'  '$••**  .  107 
The  wonderful  horseshoe  timber  trestle,  1,240  feet  long,  varying 

from  40  to  90  feet  high,  on  the  Central  Alaskan  Railway  .  .112 
A  wash-out  caused  by  the  Placer  River  in  flood  .  .-i^'1  *  ~  U!.  113 
The  obliteration  of  the  line  by  a  landslide  .  .  .  ».' ;  .  113 
A  striking  piece  of  railway  building  in  the  Yarmuk  Gorge  ••-•""•  ••.  •  .  118 
A  bird's-eye  view  of  a  chasm  in  Palestine,  through  which  the  line 

follows  a  winding  path  on  the  left      .        .        .        .        .        .119 

A  masonry   bridge   on   the   Holy   Railway,    showing   solidity   of 

construction  and  mountainous  character  of  the  country  .  119 
A  heavy  steel  bridge  in  course  of  erection  between  Haifa  and 

Deraa,  the  branch  from  the  main  sacred  line  to  the  shores  of 

the  Mediterranean  Sea 122 

The   engineering  wonder  of   the    Hedjaz    Railway — the  sudden 

descent  into  "  The  Devil's  Belly  " 123 

The  railway  in  the  domain  of  the  Genii 124 

The  lonely  path  of  the  Pilgrim's  line  through  the  silent,  rocky  and 

sandy  wastes  of  Arabia       .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .125 

Meiggs'  masterpiece — the  V-switch  by  means  of  which  the  railway 

is  lifted  from  one  level   to  another,    showing   turntable   and 

method  of  operation  .        .         .        .        .         .         .        .        .130 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  xiii 

Tofacepetgc 

The  Infiernillo  Bridge  .  .  •  .  .  .  .  .  .130 

A  horseshoe  curve  in  a  tunnel 131 

The  first  Verrugas  Viaduct,  which  was  destroyed  by  a  cloudburst 

and  rock-slide      .        .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .134 

The  highest  tunnel  in  the  world  under  construction  .  .  .135 
A  British  locomotive  in  the  realm  of  perpetual  Andean  snow, 

15,865  feet  above  sea-level,  on  the  Oroya  Railway  .  .  .136 
Looking  through  the  tunnels  on  the  Oroya  Railway  .  .  .13? 

The  greatest  bridge  in  the  world  . 144 

Setting  up  the  world's  railway  building  record  in  Africa  .  .  .  145 
Construction  train  on  the  way  to  the  railhead  crossing  a  temporary 

timber  bridge 1 54 

The  longest  bridge  in  Africa,  1,300  feet  in  length,  across  the 

Kafue  River 154 

The  "  Hanging  Bridge,"  one  of  the  railway  wonders  of  the  Denver 

and  Rio  Grande,  in  the  Royal  Gorge  of  Colorado  .  .  .  155 

The  railway  two  miles  above  the  sea 166 

A  "double-header"  climbing  the  cliff  of  Animas  Canyon  on  the 

Denver  and  Rio  Grande  Railway     .         .        .        .        .        .167 

Crossing  the  continental  "divide"  on  the  "  Moffatt"  road  .  .170 
The  Moffatt  Railway  playing  "  hide-and-seek"  among  the  tunnels 

in  Gore  Canyon .  171 

The  gigantic  snowplough,  the  largest  yet  built,  which  keeps  the 

higher    levels    of    the    "Moffatt"    line    through   the   Rocky 

Mountains  free  from  the  heavy  falls  of  snow  .  .  .  172 

A  deep  cutting 173 

Boring  one  of  the  ten  tunnels 173 

Before  the  explosion  .  .  .  . 180 

The  blast 180 

The  cliff- face  dislodged 180 

The  cliff-face  broken  up 180 

The  Puttapa  Gap  Bridge,  200  feet  in  length 181 

The  Hookina  Creek  Bridge .  .181 

The  entrance  to  the  tunnel,  1,096  feet  long,  through  the  Darling 

Range 188 

The  dearth  of  suitable  water  was  the  serious  problem  in  the  early 

days  of  the  Coolgardie  goldfields.     As  the  railway  could  not 

haul   supplies   from   the   coast,  this   novel   condensing  plant 

was  erected .  .189 

How  the  Western  Australian  Eastern  Railway  cuts  through  the 

Darling  Range 194 

The  Leopoldina  Railway  is  a  maze  of  curves,  twists  and  bends, 

owing  to  the  rugged  character  of  the  country  traversed  .  .195 
A  steep  bank  showing  the  central  rack  rail  .  .  .  .  .216 
Train  on  the  rack  section  of  the  Petropolis  division,  showing  the 

curious  type  of  locomotive  adopted 216 


xiv  LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

To  face  fagc 

Rebuilding  a  bridge  on  the  Leopoldina  Railway     Vv'  >        .        .217 

A  flood  on  the  line     .    :  >  v:   >      .'.••-  ;-*  .'' '''-•; '; "•'  -'.'•'•  .y?v'-  •  "V        .  218 

A  derailment  caused  by  the  train  colliding  with  a  cow  !  .       -V   «•  •  *>.  218 

An  interesting  engineering  achievement  .  V  >  '•' -, '  •  •  ^  "•  '  .  219 
Bridge  over  the  Parahybuna  River,  showing  height  of  river  in  flood 

and  force  of  water  surging  round  the  piers        v     '  -i       -U  "     .  219 
The   bridge   over  the  Parahybuna  River  at  Campos  under  con- 
struction    .-..,..    ••:'£'  ^' •':'*•    ,     »v!"  '.^'ViV    "'  --4  •';'•"•''..•'"'•  ),::.:•'!'-'•':•'   ,:  .  220 

The  Parahybuna  River  Bridge  completed.  Total  length  1,113^  feet  220 
The  rockbound  shore  of  Lake  Superior  severely  taxed  the  engineers 

in  the  building  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  <-.  .  .  221 
The  "  Gap,"  the  eastern  entrance  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway 

to  the  Rocky  Mountains  .  <VV>  •» -•'•*.;•>•  A '  V^-^."  .  .  226 
Where  the  "Big  Hill"  was  cut  out  on  the  Canadian  Pacific 

Railway,  between  Hector  and  Field  ^'v-  '  »  ^.p-..  '  .  227 
How  the  Canadian  Pacific  line  creeps  round  towering  precipices 

along  the  Fraser  River  .  •.?•••-  r  !  ,v  ;  .  •  iv  '  ^  -  230 
In  threading  the  Fraser  River  Canyon  the  engineers  were  com- 
pelled to  hug  the  waterway,  though  it  involved  the  boring  of 

numerous  short  tunnels  "»-•;•'  .  ••••. "  :K>V>«i  .;i'  •'•:•  ;>.^  ,>  .  231 
The  steel  arch  bridge  across  Stoney  Creek  in  the  Selkirk 

Mountains  .  -.-  *.  ,.  ',.**  .,  ..  ..  -,  .-,,,1  •:-.  r  .  234 
The  railway  traversing  the  tumbled  Thompson  River  Canyon  .  235 
The  Cisco  cantilever  bridge  carrying  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway 

across  the  Fraser  River  .  • . ':>v«.:;.>.v.:;' .  i.w :'  -.  -"'•'» ;:,"" ''•;.  .  238 
The  Key  West  "Limited"  passing  over  Long  Key  Viaduct  at 

full  speed „,..:.:,.•„  .  339 

Building  the  grade.  The  dredger  cutting  its  own  path  and 

dumping  removed  spoil  in  centre  to  form  the  embankment 

for  the  track  .  .  •:..  .'•>  -.  .  rv  :.<'  '<  .  244 
The  embankment  completed,  with  the  canals  dug  by  the  dredgers 

on  either  side v- '  /.  -  .  244 

How  the  embankment  was  built  on  the  keys  .  •' v.  ;  ..  •  =,.  .  245 
How  the  reinforced  concrete  arches  were  built  within  wooden 

moulds  ....  -•.'.  -,  ,  *.'  •.  v  -•••:.  245 
The  training-bund  or  wall  to  narrow  the  Ganges  by  3000  feet  for 

the  Curzon  Bridge,  showing  railway  approach  .  «r  >  .  .  252 
Erecting  the  piers  for  the  Curzon  Bridge  '••  ,  '  i  .  '":•' ":;< '••  •  253 
The  training-bund  under  construction  by  native  labour.  At  the 

extreme  right  a  pier  is  being  built  for  the  bridge  .  ;»  .  254 
General  view  of  the  pier-building  operations  for  the  Curzon  Bridge 

across  the  Ganges  at  Allahabad  .  ',.^:.^^.  *!;.;". •-..  .  255 
The  Gokteik  Viaduct  under  construction  .  *>,>  •;;  -.  .,  .  256 

View  of  the  Gokteik  Viaduct MW,  .  257 

Train  emerging  from  Reinunga  Tunnel,  5,2 17  feet  long,  in  distance, 

showing  snowscoop-plough  on  locomotive  .         *  .,   •»     \:;m«.&.  •     262 


LIST  OF   ILLUSTRATIONS  xv 

Te  face  page 

Myrdal  Station,  showing  entrance  to  Gravehals  Tunnel,  17,420  feet 

in  length • . .  •  .  •  •  263 

Myrdal  Station  in  winter,  showing  depth  of  snowfall  .  .  .  263 
A  view  on  the  Bergen  Railway  in  winter,  showing  screens  to 

protect  line  from  drifting  snow,  and  snowsheds  .  .  .  266 

Mules  carrying  water  in  barrels 267 

Load  of  railway  metals  on  a  mule's  back 267 

Railway  building  in  Nyasaland,  Central  Africa  *  .  .  .  282 

A  typical  bridge  on  the  Nyasaland  Railway  "»'  .  .  283 
The  novel  lift  bridge  over  the  Shire  River  at  Chiromo  .  .  .283 

The  iron  horse  in  Central  Africa 284 

The  bascules  being  lowered  by  cables  and  winches  from  either 

cliff-face 285 

The  bascules  lowered,  showing  the  French  engineers  at  centre 

making  the  connection  .  .  .  .  .'•  .  .  •  285 

The  Faux-Namiti  Bridge  completed 302 

The  line  skirting  the  seashore  near  Okits^,  Tokaido,  on  the 

Japanese  Government  railways  *.  .  .  •  .  .  •  3°3 

The  most  striking  example  of  Japanese  railway  engineering  .  .  306 
Two  railways  racing  to  the  Pacific  coast  through  the  Deschutes 

River  Canyon  .  '  ,  :  V  .  r 307 

The  "  switchback  "  by  means  of  which  the  Great  Northern  Railway 

of  the  United  States  negotiated  the  Cascade  Mountains  before 

the  boring  of  the  Cascade  Tunnel 310 

Building  a  steel  trestle  across  a  rift  .  .  '  . :"'-'.  ,  .  .  311 

Building  the  biggest  embankment  on  record  by  hydraulic  sluicing  .  314 
The  "  Merry-go-round  "  devised  to  expedite  raising  an  embankment 

I2ofeethigh  .  ..•*-  ..«  ,.,.•;,.  .  .,  ,....;.:  v;  v  •  •  •  31S 
A  lofty  embankment  in  course  of  construction.  In  the  centre  it  is 

1 20  feet  high.  Construction  camp  in  foreground  .  .  .  315 
Building  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  Puget  Sound  Railway 

through  the  Bitter  Root  Mountains  .  .  .  •  .318 
Carrying  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  Puget  Sound  Railway  across 

the  Columbia  River     .        r,      •*,     ,   . 319 


CHAPTER    I 

THE   RAILWAY   SURVEYOR'S   ADVENTUROUS   LIFE 

''ONE'S  experience  is  varied  from  camping  out  in  tents 
at  fifty  degrees  below  zero,  to  spending  a  large  amount  of 
time  in  the  wilderness,  when  provisions  are  very  short  and 
one  has  to  depend  upon  fish  for  food." 

This  was  the  description  of  the  task  of  discovering  a 
path  for  the  iron  road  through  a  new  country,  as  related 
to  me  by  the  late  John  E.  Schwitzer,  one  of  the  most 
brilliant  railway  engineers  that  Canada  has  produced,  and 
one  who  had  climbed  the  ladder  of  success  from  the  humble 
capacity  of  rodman  at  a  few  shillings  per  week,  to  the 
position  of  chief  engineer  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway, 
within  the  short  space  of  twenty-two  years.  From  his 
unique  experience  he  was  fitted  to  speak  with  authority, 
and  his  statement  sums  up  the  life  of  a  surveyor  in  a 
nutshell. 

So  far  as  the  loneliness  and  the  need  to  fish  for  food 
are  concerned  I  can  speak  from  experience.  This  article 
of  diet  is  plentiful,  but  its  monotony  palls  very  quickly, 
while  at  times  one  longs  for  the  excitement  of  the  city.  But 
once  this  feeling  has  been  lived  down  one  would  not 
exchange  the  virgin  country,  with  its  invigorating  air  and 
life  of  exciting  adventure,  for  a  smoke-begrimed  stifling 
centre  of  activity  for  any  consideration. 

In  Great  Britain,  owing  to  its  completely  settled  con- 
dition, the  difficulties  incidental  to  this  class  of  work  do 
not  exist.  The  wrestles  with  heat,  sun-baked  desert,  ice- 
bound forest  and  extreme  cold  have  never  been  experienced 
in  connection  with  the  driving  forward  of  the  ribbon  of 
B 


2       RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

steel  in  these  islands.  There  is  an  utter  lack  of  that 
thrilling  romantic  interest  and  adventure  associated  with 
similar  work  in  an  unknown  country,  where  the  surveyor 
is  not  merely  a  surveyor,  but  an  explorer  as  well.  In  any 
of  the  four  continents  beyond  Europe  he  fulfils  an  import- 
ant mission.  He  is  the  advance-guard  of  civilisation.  He 
spies  out  the  country  for  the  greatest  settling  force  that 
has  yet  been  devised,  and  although  the  work  more  often 
than  not  is  extremely  perilous,  he  revels  in  the  dangers. 
One  must  be  prepared  to  face  any  emergency  :  be  ready 
to  fulfil  any  duty.  One  may  be  buried  for  months  amidst 
the  strongholds  of  ice-capped  mountains,  isolated  upon  the 
sweltering  desolate  expanses  of  broiling  deserts,  imprisoned 
in  the  hearts  of  yawning  ravines,  or  immersed  amid  reeking 
dismal  swamps,  cut  off  by  hundreds  of  miles  from  the 
nearest  town  or  settlement.  Then  Nature  is  the  surveyor's 
sole  companion,  and  in  her  silent  company  herculean  and 
heroic  tasks  often  have  to  be  fulfilled,  of  which  the  world 
at  large  never  gleans  an  inkling. 

The  surveyor  is  the  personification  of  happy-go-lucki- 
ness. He  pursues  his  path  doggedly,  laughs  at  obstacles, 
no  matter  how  forbidding  they  may  be,  and  accomplishes 
glorious  deeds  unsung.  Often  his  sudden  death  through 
accident,  disease  or  misadventure  goes  unmourned  beyond 
the  limits  of  his  own  camp.  Yet  an  everlasting  and  omni- 
potent monument  to  his  memory  is  raised — the  thin  thread 
of  steel  which  annihilates  time  and  space. 

These  men  show  a  devotion  to  their  calling  which  it  is 
impossible  to  fathom.  They  brave  perils  beyond  con- 
ception and  face  death  in  a  hundred  different  forms.  It 
may  be  a  slip  on  a  treacherous  foothold  at  the  brink  of 
a  yawning  gulch,  the  upset  of  a  frail  bark  in  a  swiftly 
rushing  rapid,  a  land-  or  rock-slide,  an  avalanche,  or  a 
tree  snapping  under  the  fury  of  the  storm  which  hurries 
them  to  their  doom.  In  silence  they  suffer  the  torments 
of  thirst,  the  pangs  of  hunger,  physical  exhaustion,  frost- 
bite, snow-blindness,  disease,  the  hostility  of  mankind  and 
a  thousand  other  dangers.  When  they  have  emerged  from 


RAILWAY  SURVEYOR'S   ADVENTUROUS   LIFE    3 

the  ordeal  they  laugh  at  their  experiences,  and  consider 
them  no  more  fearsome  than  those  confronting  the  ordinary 
city  dweller  as  he  walks  along  a  crowded  thoroughfare. 

As  one  travels  over  the  railway  through  Mexico,  interest 
is  aroused  by  four  primitive  little  wooden  crosses  beside 
the  track.  It  is  a  small  God's  acre  in  an  undulating 
expanse.  The  probability  is  that  it  would  miss  the  eye 
unless  one  were  bent  on  its  discovery.  Yet  those  four 
monuments  tell  a  silent  story  of  grim  adventure.  The 
Mexican  Central  was  being  driven  through  a  hostile 
country,  and  the  Indians  were  being  forced  back  relent- 
lessly by  its  influence.  They  were  sullen  but  not  sub- 
dued. 

A  little  squad  of  four  surveyors  were  busily  engaged  in 
pegging  out  the  path  for  the  line.  They  were  deep  in  the 
intricacies  of  their  task.  Suddenly  there  was  a  savage 
blood-curdling  whoop.  A  horde  of  Indians,  in  the  full 
panoply  of  war-paint  and  feathers,  were  bearing  down 
upon  them  on  mischief  bent.  The  engineers  discarded 
their  instruments  hurriedly  and  grabbed  their  rifles.  They 
were  outnumbered  hopelessly,  but  undaunted,  they  kept 
blazing  away,  picking  off  their  foes  with  that  stubbornness 
born  of  despair.  There  were  no  thoughts  of  surrender  to 
the  implacable  enemy.  Nor  could  they  hope  for  aid;  they 
were  too  far  distant  from  their  base.  One  by  one  they 
fell,  and  when  at  last  their  comrades  came  up,  their 
mutilated  corpses  were  the  sole  evidences  of  that  forlorn 
struggle.  To-day  those  four  wooden  crosses  serve  to  recall 
that  grim  episode.  Such  dramatic  incidents  unfortunately 
were  only  too  frequent  in  the  early  days  of  railway  building 
upon  the  American  continent,  though  they  were  far  from 
being  peculiar  to  the  New  World.  They  have  been,  and 
still  are,  repeated  occasionally  in  connection  with  such 
enterprises  in  other  parts  of  the  globe. 

It  was  only  a  year  or  two  ago  that  one  of  the  most 
ferocious  acts  of  savage  barbarity,  such  as  is  difficult  to 
parallel  in  the  annals  of  railway  engineering,  was  perpe- 
trated in  South  America.  Only  the  fringe  of  that  vast 

B  2 


4       RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

territory  has  been  opened  up  by  the  iron  horse.  The 
greater  part  is  more  unknown  to-day  than  the  land  around 
the  North  Pole. 

A  small  party  of  engineers  set  off  up  country  to  map  out 
a  projected  extension.  They  plunged  boldly  into  the 
depths  of  the  primeval  forest.  But  they  never  returned. 
What  happened  when  they  disappeared  within  the  tangled 
labyrinth  of  trees  no  one  knows.  The  time  slipped  by,  and 
their  comrades  outside,  fretting  at  their  prolonged  absence, 
grew  so  alarmed  that  a  relief  party  was  organised.  The 
worst  was  dreaded,  for  the  hostility  of  the  natives  to  the 
locomotive  was  known  only  too  well.  The  relief  party 
advanced  warily,  weapons  in  hand,  ready  for  the  slightest 
sign  of  fight.  However,  they  were  safe  from  molestation, 
but  had  not  ventured  far  into  the  tangled  jungle  before 
they  solved  the  mystery,  and  were  able  to  reconstruct  a 
tragic  adventure  only  too  realistically. 

The  steps  of  the  surveying  engineers  had  been  dogged 
silently  and  relentlessly  by  the  remorseless  savages. 
When  the  former  had  gained  a  point  sufficiently  remote 
from  the  belt  of  civilisation,  they  were  laid  low  by  poisoned 
arrows.  The  relief-party  accounted  for  every  engineer,  but 
one  and  all  were  beyond  human  succour.  They  were 
found  in  a  gruesome  row,  poised  upside  down,  with  stakes 
driven  lengthwise  through  their  bodies  and  heads  into  the 
ground.  They  had  been  pinned  down  with  no  more  com- 
punction than  the  school-boy  secures  his  etymological  prize 
to  a  piece  of  cardboard. 

A  few  years  ago  British  North  Borneo  was  the  scene  of 
a  similar  disaster.  It  had  been  decided  to  drive  a  railway 
from  coast  to  coast,  and  a  party  set  out  on  the  recon- 
naissance, as  the  first  step  in  a  new  railway  undertaking 
is  called.  The  path  lay  through  the  dense  forest  which 
had  never  been  penetrated  by  the  white  man,  and  where 
the  dreaded  Head  Hunters  held  undisputed  sway.  The 
prospect  was  forbidding  in  the  extreme,  but  it  did  not 
dismay  the  engineers  who  plunged  fearlessly  into  the  bush. 
As  the  crow  flies  their  journey  was  only  one  of  some  150 


RAILWAY   SURVEYOR'S  ADVENTUROUS   LIFE     5 

miles,  but  the  thick  vegetation  concealed  difficulties 
innumerable. 

That  survey  was  doomed  to  failure.  The  party  was 
overwhelmed  by  the  Dyaks  and  massacred,  with  the 
exception  of  three  native  porters  who  succeeded  in  making 
good  their  escape.  After  experiencing  terrible  privations, 
this  trio  regained  civilisation  and  communicated  the  sad 
tidings  of  the  calamity.  For  years  that  stretch  of  forest 
defied  conquest.  Finally  another  attempt  was  made  to 
traverse  the  jungle,  and  on  this  occasion  no  interference  to 
progress  was  offered.  The  surveyors  gained  the  opposite 
coast  in  about  six  months,  being  called  upon  to  fight  only 
one  enemy — disease.  It  was  a  desperate  plunge,  for  the 
party  had  to  hack  and  hew  its  way  foot  by  foot  through 
the  matted  scrub  and  trees. 

These  afford  instances  of  the  hostility  of  mankind  which 
fortunately  to-day  are  encountered  but  seldom.  It  is  the 
hostility  of  Nature  which  is  feared  more  greatly  now.  Yet 
the  work  possesses  a  fascinating  glamour.  The  existence 
of  difficulty  only  spurs  the  determined  to  further  effort. 

Railway  surveying  in  the  effort  to  roll  back  the  map  in 
a  new  country  offers  the  young  man  all  the  adventure  in 
life  that  can  be  desired.  As  one  surveyor  who  had  spent 
more  years  than  he  could  remember  in  the  wilds  between 
China  and  Peru  remarked  to  me,  "  If  it  is  not  the  natural 
difficulties  or  the  hostility  of  the  natives  which  lend  variety 
to  the  work,  the  chances  are  a  hundred  to  one  that  a 
revolution  will  fill  the  gap,  especially  in  China  or  the 
South  Americas." 

At  times  the  work  is  exasperating.  Perhaps  the  surveyor 
who  has  been  imprisoned  for  months  on  end  in  an  inhos- 
pitable country  has  been  driven  to  his  wits'  end  to  find  a 
practicable  location  which  is  immune  from  the  many 
disturbances  of  Nature.  By  dint  of  supreme  effort  finally 
he  discovers  a  route  which  he  congratulates  himself  to  be 
absolutely  safe,  only  to  receive  a  rude  awakening.  In  the 
survey  of  a  new  line  through  the  Rockies,  the  mountains 
barring  the  engineer's  path  had  achieved  an  unenviable 


6        RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

reputation,  owing  to  the  frequency  and  severity  of  the 
avalanches  that  tore  down  their  steep  slopes  every  spring. 
The  surveyor  reconnoitred  that  mountain  chain  from  end 
to  end,  observed  every  path  that  the  slides  had  been  known 
to  take,  searched  local  records  and  questioned  aged  inhabit- 
ants to  make  himself  acquainted  thoroughly  with  the 
conditions. 

At  last  he  concluded  that  he  had  elaborated  a  path  for 
the  railway  which  was  beyond  the  destructive  efforts  of  the 
periodical  visitations  and  work  was  commenced.  Yet  in 
the  first  spring,  while  the  construction  train  was  crawling 
along  with  a  load  of  excavated  spoil  from  the  mountain- 
side, the  slipping  snow  departed  from  its  accustomed  path, 
and  in  its  descent  caught  the  unlucky  train,  threw  it  into 
the  gulch  some  distance  below,  ripped  up  the  metals, 
buried  the  grade  beneath  thousands  of  tons  of  de"bris, 
and  obliterated  every  vestige  of  the  work. 

The  surveyor  must  be  a  man  not  to  be  daunted  very 
easily  in  his  enterprise,  not  to  be  cast  down  by  heart- 
breaking failures,  and  who  has  the  capacity  to  gather 
tangible  assistance  from  apparently  insignificant  trifles. 
The  search  for  a  rift  through  a  frowning  mountain  wall 
often  is  galling  in  its  hopelessness.  When  the  first 
Canadian  trans-continental  line  was  being  forced  towards 
the  Pacific  coast,  the  crossing  of  the  Rocky,  Selkirk  and 
Gold  ranges  puzzled  the  surveyors  acutely.  Walter 
Moberly,  a  surveyor  to  the  manner  born,  was  deputed  to 
complete  the  conquest  of  the  Gold  or  Columbia  Range. 
The  obvious  path  to  follow  was  along  the  bank  of  the 
mighty  Columbia  River,  and  this  was  taken  by  Moberly. 
Yet  the  Gold  Range  had  to  be  threaded  somewhere  and 
somehow,  though  it  appeared  to  defy  penetration.  He 
spent  months  wandering  up  and  down  the  river,  enduring 
hardships  indescribable,  seeking  for  the  slightest  breach 
through  that  terrible  wall,  wide  enough  to  carry  a  pair  of 
metals,  but  no  gateway  could  he  find. 

Weary  and  sick  at  heart  at  the  fruitlessness  of  his 
endeavours,  he  was  one  day  returning  despondently  to 


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RAILWAY  SURVEYOR'S  ADVENTUROUS  LIFE     7 

camp.  He  was  compelled  well-nigh  to  admit  failure. 
Suddenly  he  espied  an  eagle  wheeling  over  his  head.  He 
followed  its  movements  somewhat  nonchalantly,  until  he 
saw  it  make  directly  for  the  Columbia  mountains.  Then 
his  heart  gave  a  thump  !  Would  the  bird  rise  and  clear 
their  lofty  summits  or  would  it  sweep  through  a  rift? 
Following  its  flight  through  the  air,  he  saw  the  bird  give 
a  majestic  dip  downwards  towards  the  chain.  He  turned 
the  head  of  his  jaded  horse,  and  digging  his  spurs  into  its 
flanks,  sped  in  the  wake  of  the  bird.  Onward  it  flew  as 
straight  as  an  arrow  towards  a  projecting  crest,  where  it 
made  a  sharp  turn  and  was  lost  to  sight. 

Moberly  galloped  madly  forward  with  his  eyes  glued  to 
that  crag.  He  never  turned  his  head,  fearing  his  sight 
might  play  him  false,  and  was  oblivious  to  stumbles  and 
lurches  as  his  steed  fell  over  logs  and  slipped  among 
boulders  in  its  mad  career.  He  swung  round  the  crest, 
and  there  before  his  eyes  the  peaks  were  rolled  back  on 
either  side,  leaving  a  broad  canyon,  and  of  such  a  character 
that  Nature  appeared  to  have  fashioned  it  expressly  for  the 
advance  of  the  steel  highway.  The  Columbia  range  was 
conquered.  It  was  by  pure  accident  that  it  had  been  found, 
but  it  was  an  accident  which  culminated  a  prolonged 
industrious  quest.  Indebted  to  his  success  to  the  monarch 
of  the  air  Moberly  christened  the  break  in  the  rocky  wall 
"Eagle  Pass,"  and  it  is  through  that  gulch  to-day  that 
the  Canadian  Pacific  makes  its  way  to  the  western  sea. 
As  one  sweeps  between  the  massive  ice-crowned  teeth  of 
the  mountains  one  may  see  the  site  of  the  oldest  cabin  in 
the  mountains,  where  the  indefatigable  Moberly  passed  the 
winter  of  1871-2  completing  the  preliminary  surveys  for 
the  line  among  the  fastnesses  of  the  Columbia  Mountains. 

The  task  of  planning  the  location  through  such  broken 
country  is  attended  with  the  gravest  dangers,  relieved 
with  exciting  adventures.  At  places  among  the  peaks  a 
foothold  on  terra  firma  for  the  manipulation  of  the  survey 
instruments  is  impossible.  Then  massive  tree-logs  are 
lowered  into  the  gulch  a  few  feet  above  the  raging  foam 


8       RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

of  a  wicked  mountain  torrent,  and  along  this  slender 
staging  the  surveyor  has  to  crawl  to  carry  out  his  task. 

Life  often  hangs  upon  the  veritable  thread.  It  may  be 
that  logs  cannot  be  thrown  over  the  cliff  face.  Then  the 
surveyor  has  to  don  a  leathern  waist-belt  fitted  with  a  heavy 
swivel  to  which  a  rope  is  attached.  In  this  way  he  is 
swung  over  the  edge  of  a  cliff  to  operate  his  level  and 
transit  along  the  face  of  a  precipice  where  no  foothold 
exists.  Sometimes  it  becomes  imperative  to  have  recourse 
to  dynamite  to  blast  out  a  ledge  along  which  to  advance. 
Many  a  promising  young  engineer  has  gone  to  his  last 
account  in  work  of  such  a  desperate  character.  In  the 
survey  of  what  is  now  the  Denver  and  Rio  Grande  through 
one  of  Colorado's  yawning  canyons,  a  young  assistant  had 
to  be  lowered  in  this  manner.  Half-a-dozen  labourers 
grasped  the  end  of  the  rope  and  steadied  the  surveyor  in 
his  descent  over  the  perilous  edge.  From  the  brink  to 
the  bottom  of  the  canyon  was  a  matter  of  200  feet  or 
so  straight  down.  In  a  few  seconds  the  young  fellow 
was  dangling  betwixt  earth  and  sky,  steadying  his  descent 
as  best  he  could  down  the  face  of  the  cliff. 

Suddenly  there  was  a  cry  of  alarm  !  The  rope-man 
nearest  the  cliff  edge  noticed  that  the  rope  was  bearing 
upon  a  piece  of  rock  the  edge  of  which  was  as  keen  as 
that  of  a  razor.  The  rope  had  been  sawn  almost  in  two. 
Lowering  stopped.  The  two  men  rushed  forward  to  grasp 
the  rope  below  the  point  of  pending  rupture  to  ease  the 
strain.  But  they  were  too  late.  There  was  a  slight  tremor, 
the  last  strand  snapped,  and  before  the  rope-men  realised 
the  situation  as  the  end  hung  limply  in  their  hands,  the 
cry  of  the  lost  engineer  as  he  tumbled  through  the  air  was 
echoed  from  the  depths  of  the  canyon. 

Life  in  the  field  is  indisputably  hard  and  exacting,  and 
the  task  is  often  aggravated  by  the  scarcity,  or  monotony, 
of  the  food.  This  condition  of  affairs,  however,  is  incom- 
parably better  to-day  than  it  was  thirty  years  ago.  The 
surveyors  are  tended  more  thoughtfully  than  they  were 
then,  and  the  perfection  of  food-preserving  science  has 


RAILWAY    SURVEYOR'S   ADVENTUROUS   LIFE     9 

enabled  a  camp  now  to  be  provisioned  with  tasty  comes- 
tibles which  formerly  were  unknown.  Pork,  beans  and 
bannock — a  substitute  for  bread  made  from  flour  and  bacon 
fat  with  a  little  baking-powder — constituted  the  staple 
articles  of  diet,  varied  with  fish  from  the  streams,  game 
from  the  forests  and  wild  fruits.  The  bread  was  often 
musty,  for  immersion  time  after  time  in  a  torrent  and 
storage  upon  damp  ground  did  not  improve  the  flavour  of 
the  flour  by  any  means.  The  pork  or  bacon  often  was 
rancid,  while  the  cook  was  invariably  an  execrable  exponent 
of  the  culinary  art,  and  his  bannock  played  sad  havoc  with 
the  digestive  organs  of  the  human  body.  Little  wonder 
that  the  men,  under  such  conditions,  sought  to  secure 
additions  to  the  menu  from  the  rivers  by  methods  decidedly 
unsportsmanlike,  but  the  "end  justified  the  means";  or 
delighted  in  bear  steaks  and  venison. 

Extreme  altitudes  such  as  have  to  be  attained  in  order 
to  cross  the  Andes  undermine  the  strongest  constitutions 
and  render  the  surveyor's  work  increasingly  difficult. 
Struggling,  crawling  and  slipping  among  crags  and  loose 
rocks  inflicting  cuts  and  bruises  is  arduous  work  indeed, 
but  when  the  human  frame  is  racked  by  the  tortures  of 
sorochte,  or  mountain  sickness,  the  surveyor's  plight  is  to 
be  pitied  in  very  truth.  In  such  climes  the  cold  and  winds 
are  pitiless,  the  movements  of  the  thermometer  between 
midnight  and  noon  are  enormous,  the  fluctuation  in  some 
cases  being  as  much  as  a  hundred  degrees  in  the  course  of 
twelve  hours.  In  the  middle  of  the  day  the  heat  is  well- 
nigh  unbearable,  and  the  surveyor  gladly  discards  his 
outer  clothing.  At  night  he  finds  it  no  simple  matter  to 
keep  warm,  for  the  mercury  descends  to  a  very  low  level 
and  frost  prevails.  The  winds  too  are  so  cutting  and  pene- 
trating that  it  requires  elaborate  and  special  clothing  after 
dark  to  keep  warm. 

Now  and  again  a  situation  develops  which  relieves  the 
monotony  of  the  daily  round  of  struggle  against  the  forces 
of  Nature.  South  America  is  pre-eminently  the  home  of 
these  humorous  incidents.  The  concession  for  the  con- 


io     RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

struction  of  a  railway  through  one  of  the  tropical  republics 
had  been  granted,  and  no  time  was  lost  in  pushing  forward 
with  the  preliminary  surveys.  But  when  the  men  with 
the  transit  and  level  reached  a  certain  city  they  were  sur- 
prised to  meet  with  unveiled  opposition.  The  municipal 
authorities  point-blankly  refused  to  permit  the  surveyors 
to  carry  out  their  work  in  the  precincts  of  the  city.  Seeing 
that  the  latter  was  to  benefit  mostly  from  the  steel  link, 
the  attitude  was  somewhat  inexplicable  at  first  sight.  A 
little  reflection,  however,  upon  the  South  American 
methods  of  transacting  business  convinced  the  surveyor 
that  bribery  was  the  root  of  the  trouble.  He  reported  the 
interruption  to  his  superiors,  whose  representatives  hurried 
to  the  city  to  fathom  the  reason  for  the  unexpected  opposi- 
tion. It  was  as  the  surveyor  had  surmised.  The  civic 
authorities  would  permit  the  iron  horse  to  enter  the  city 
if  the  concessionaries  would  make  a  handsome  contribu- 
tion to  the  municipal  improvement  fund — explained  the 
mayor.  "Well,  how  rnuch  do  you  want?"  remarked  the 
concessionaries,  who  inwardly  had  not  overlooked  this 
contingency.  The  mayor  could  not  say  off-hand,  and 
accordingly  several  delays  occurred  until  this  vital  con- 
sideration was  arranged.  As  a  result  of  the  prolonged 
parleys  the  concessionaries  undertook  to  deliver  a  certain 
sum  of  money  to  the  city. 

The  bullion  was  dispatched  forthwith  and  reached  the 
city  the  night  before  payment  was  due,  so  as  to  prevent  the 
authorities  to  withdraw  from  the  bargain  on  the  plea  that 
the  concessionaries  were  dilatory.  But  law  and  order  were 
not  enforced  very  strongly,  and  the  surveyor,  with  his 
companions,  entertained  certain  qualms.  Accordingly  they 
decided  to  mount  guard  over  the  building  in  which  they 
were  passing  the  night  in  case  of  eventualities,  at  the  same 
time  securing  a  goodly  supply  of  arms  and  ammunition. 

As  the  first  streaks  of  dawn  lighted  the  scene  the  guard 
thought  he  descried  the  forms  of  men  creeping  along  the 
ground  in  the  gloom.  Silently  he  roused  his  companions, 
and  with  firearms  cocked  they  waited  developments.  Not 


RAILWAY  SURVEYOR'S  ADVENTUROUS   LIFE    n 

a  sign  of  movement  was  displayed  among  the  inmates, 
and  the  robbers  silently  forced  an  entrance  through  the 
windows  and  door.  Once  inside  the  building  they  were 
greeted  with  a  warm  fusillade  of  lead,  and  in  accordance 
with  the  characteristics  of  their  ilk,  they  did  not  stop  to 
reply,  but  beat  as  hurried  retreat  as  they  could  under  the 
assistance  of  bullets,  leaving  some  of  their  number  hors  de 
combat.  When  day  broke  the  besieged  party  examined  the 
fruits  of  their  marksmanship,  and  to  their  intense  surprise 
discovered  that  the  dead  included  the  mayor  of  the  city, 
and  one  or  two  of  his  companions  who  had  carried  out  the 
negotiations  for  the  contribution  to  the  improvement  fund, 
and  who  had  been  so  remarkably  solicitous  concerning  the 
city's  welfare  ! 

It  will  be  realised  that  the  surveyor  who  undertakes  the 
plotting  of  the  line  through  a  new  country  must  be  a  man 
of  illimitable  resource  and  capacity,  and  at  the  same  time 
ready  to  meet  any  development.  It  must  be  confessed, 
however,  that  the  work,  from  its  adventurous  aspect, 
appeals  strongly  to  the  young  engineer  anxious  to  get 
away  from  monotonous  routine. 


CHAPTER    II 

THE  ROMANCE   OF   CONSTRUCTION 

THOUGH  the  task  of  deciding  the  path  for  the  railway 
teems  with  excitement,  adventure  and  privation,  the  battle 
with  Nature  commences  in  grim  earnest  when  the  con- 
structional engineer  arrives  on  the  scene.  On  paper  it 
seems  a  simple  task  to  follow  the  location  as  indicated  by 
an  unbroken  row  of  wooden  stakes,  but  to  carry  the 
surveyors'  work  to  completion,  and  to  comply  with  require- 
ments as  to  grades  and  curves,  often  proves  a  heart- 
rending undertaking.  No  matter  how  formidable  any 
obstruction  may  appear,  it  is  the  work  of  the  builder  to 
beat  it  down ;  to  overcome  it  by  some  means  or  other  with 
the  minimum  of  expense.  He  must  be  baulked  by  nothing. 

Such  a  task  demands  a  man  of  illimitable  resource  and 
infinite  ingenuity,  conversant  with  every  phase  of  civil 
engineering.  At  the  same  time  he  must  possess  the  happy 
faculty  of  being  able  to  organise  great  armies  of  men  of 
all  nationalities,  and  in  such  a  manner  that  he  can  get  the 
utmost  out  of  them.  This  is  a  searching  difficulty.  The 
camp  of  to-day  upon  a  large  railway  undertaking  is  a  hetero- 
geneous mass  of  humanity ;  the  confusion  of  tongues  at 
the  Tower  of  Babel  could  not  have  been  more  embarrass- 
ing. I  have  lived  among  the  camps  of  Canada  and  the 
United  States,  and  among  a  hundred  men  it  has  been  no 
uncommon  circumstance  to  find  representatives  of  a  dozen 
different  tongues.  The  control  of  such  men  is  rendered 
all  the  more  complex  for  the  reason  that  in  the  majority  of 
cases  they  have  little  or  no  knowledge  of  any  language 
but  their  own.  It  is  not  until  they  have  been  in  one 
another's  company  for  several  weeks  that  inter-conversation 

12 


THE   ROMANCE   OF   CONSTRUCTION          13 

becomes  possible.  In  addition  to  this  drawback  there  are 
always  the  peculiar  troubles  incidental  to  racial  and 
religious  prejudices  confronting  the  commander-in-chief, 
and  at  times  he  is  hard  pressed  to  preserve  order  and 
authority. 

This  trouble  is  not  experienced  to  any  great  degree  in 
connection  with  railway  building  operations  in  Great 
Britain,  but  abroad  the  initial  difficulties  of  this  character 
are  exasperating  to  a  superlative  degree,  more  especially 
where  reliance  has  to  be  made  upon  native  labour.  The 
workmen  have  to  be  educated  into  the  use  of  labour-  and 
time-saving  implements.  This  is  no  easy  matter.  The 
native  entertains  strong  opinions  concerning  his  own 
ability,  and  the  conversion  from  the  primitive  to  the 
up-to-date  scientific  has  to  be  effected  gradually  and  uncon- 
sciously, a  task  which  demands  considerable  tact  and 
patience.  A  great  amount  of  time  must  be  expended  neces- 
sarily in  the  early  days  to  drill  such  raw  material,  but 
perseverance  and  an  equable  temper  are  the  only  virtues. 
In  Mexico  the  railway  pioneers  found  it  almost  hopeless 
to  impress  upon  the  paeons,  as  the  navvies  are  called,  that 
to  carry  ballast  in  a  basket  slung  upon  the  back  was  not 
to  be  compared  in  speed  and  efficiency  with  conveyance  by 
small  trucks  pushed  along  a  tramroad.  It  was  only  by 
carrying  out  the  work  themselves  in  this  more  modern 
manner  that  the  engineers  could  teach  them  the  superior 
advantage  of  this  method,  with  its  sparing  of  effort  and 
fatigue.  In  fact,  the  only  way  one  can  convert  the  raw 
native  to  ideas  entirely  foreign  to  his  own  custom  is  to 
show  him  how  he  can  save  himself  trouble.  Then  he  will 
adopt  the  idea  with  alacrity. 

Now  and  again,  however,  the  white  man,  despite  his 
ingenuity  in  the  devising  of  time-  and  labour-saving 
appliances,  has  to  bow  to  the  inevitable.  For  instance, 
in  India  the  Hindoos  toil  at  such  a  low  daily  wage  that 
in  many  phases  of  work  the  wonders  of  mechanical 
invention  cannot  compare  with  their  crude  efforts  in  cheap- 
ness. It  comes  as  a  heavy  blow  to  the  engineer's  pride 


i4     RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

to  realise  that  he  must  abandon  his  elaborate  plant  and 
that  the  native  holds  the  balance  between  failure  and 
success. 

Again,  in  the  South  Americas  the  laissez-faire  attitude 
of  the  inhabitants  galls  him  to  the  quick.  In  the  southern 
part  of  the  New  World  the  policy  is  "Never  do  to-day 
what  can  be  done  to-morrow,"  and  the  native  acts  up  to 
the  very  letter  of  the  aphorism.  Religious  festivals,  each 
of  which  is  regarded  as  a  holiday,  occur  with  the  most 
tantalizing  frequency.  It  is  no  uncommon  circumstance 
for  two  or  three  such  orgies — they  scarcely  can  be  described 
as  anything  else — to  occur  in  a  week,  and  the  labourer 
is  a  commendable  zealot  in  the  observance  of  the  religious 
feasts.  The  engineer  may  fret  and  fume  at  the  delay,  but 
unless  he  is  in  a  position  to  recruit  outside  labour  he 
must  tolerate  the  frequent  interruptions  in  the  work  with 
the  best  grace  he  can  muster.  In  the  mountainous  regions 
of  South  America  the  native  knows  only  too  well  that  he 
holds  an  unassailable  advantage,  for  he  is  accustomed 
to  the  rarefied  atmosphere  encountered  in  the  extreme 
altitudes,  whereas  it  plays  sad  havoc  with  the  strongest 
constitutions  of  Europeans. 

Strange  to  say,  one  of  the  most  conscientious  workmen 
in  railway  building,  as  in  other  fields  of  industrial 
endeavour,  is  the  Chinaman.  From  a  cursory  point  of 
view  this  appears  inexplicable,  but  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  a  Celestial's  word  is  his  bond.  Johnny  will 
haggle  and  argue  for  hours  over  a  bargain,  but  when  he 
finally  accepts  the  terms  he  will  fulfil  the  contract  to  the 
letter,  even  should  he  ascertain  before  he  has  completed 
the  task  that  it  involves  him  in  a  personal  loss.  I  have 
seen  these  men  pick  up  their  tools  as  the  clock  struck  the 
hour  for  commencing  the  daily  task,  plod  along  quietly 
and  continually  until  the  hour  of  cessation,  and  give  an 
indisputably  good  return  for  their  daily  wage.  Can  the 
same  be  said  of  the  workmen  of  any  other  nationality  ?  I 
am  afraid  not.  In  fact,  the  steadiness  of  the  Chinaman  has 
become  so  famous  and  has  proved  so  reliable  that  it  is 


THE    ROMANCE   OF   CONSTRUCTION          15 

safe  to  say  that  many  of  the  biggest  railways  of  the  day 
never  would  have  been  completed  but  for  his  aid.  It 
enabled  the  first  trans-continental  line  to  be  carried  across 
the  United  States  to  link  New  York  with  San  Francisco; 
through  Oriental  labour  the  Canadian  Pacific  was  con- 
summated, and  many  another  great  undertaking  of  a  like 
nature  could  tell  a  similar  story. 

The  same  spirit  prevails  when  the  scene  of  activity  is 
removed  to  China  itself.  The  Celestial  may  entertain 
quaint  ideas  concerning  the  iron  road  and  its  scope  of 
utility.  He  may  slave  hard  to-day  laying  the  track,  merely 
to  pull  it  up  again  on  the  morrow  on  the  plea  that  it  is 
disturbing  the  spirits  of  his  ancestors.  But  nevertheless 
he  completes  his  part  of  the  bargain  in  the  first  instance. 
Strikes  are  unknown  and  disputes  never  arise  unless  the 
employer  declines  to  stand  by  his  side  of  the  contract. 
China  is  permeated  through  and  through  with  secret 
societies  or  Guilds — Trade  Unions,  if  you  like — to  one 
or  other  of  which  every  Celestial  belongs.  The  white 
engineer  when  he  first  arrives  in  the  country  finds  it  very 
difficult  to  make  headway,  but  in  reality  he  is  on  probation 
in  the  eyes  of  the  Orientals.  They  are  watching  closely 
his  methods,  fathoming  his  code  of  honour,  his  capacity 
for  handling  men — in  fact,  are  investigating  him  just  as 
closely  as  if  he  were  under  a  microscope.  Once  he  has 
established  his  reputation  and  has  inspired  confidence,  he 
need  entertain  no  further  apprehensions  concerning  trouble. 

Yet  the  Celestials  have  their  own  peculiar  and  effective 
way  of  settling  disputes  among  themselves.  The  engineer 
in  need  of  a  few  thousand  men  negotiates  for  brawn  and 
muscle  through  a  middle-man  or  labour  contractor.  The 
engineer  concludes  his  bargain  with  this  worthy,  and  the 
latter  makes  his  own  terms  with  the  men.  He  recruits 
the  navvies  at  a  certain  wage,  which  he  takes  care  to 
leave  him  a  wide  margin  of  profit.  Occasionally  he  will 
be  too  grasping  and  will  resort  to  sweating  tactics.  When 
the  labourers  find  this  out  trouble  looms  ahead.  The  men 
report  the  matter  to  their  Guilds,  who  take  the  avaricious 


1 6      RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF    THE    WORLD 

middle-man  in  hand  and  make  him  disgorge  some  of  his 
ill-gotten  gains.  If  he  refuses,  well,  one  day  the  contractor 
is  missing,  and  never  is  seen  again  by  the  engineer.  No 
questions  are  asked  and  no  explanations  for  his  disappear- 
ance are  offered.  He  has  settled  his  account  with  the 
Guilds  to  his  own  personal  disadvantage.  The  engineer, 
however,  knows  nothing  about  the  dissatisfaction  until  he 
observes  the  absence  of  the  contractor,  for  the  work 
meantime  continues  its  daily  round  undisturbed. 

Although  labour  is  a  vital  consideration,  it  is  but  one 
cog  in  the  complex  machine  by  means  of  which  the  iron 
road  is  driven  forward  through  a  new  country.  Without 
tools  the  efforts  of  the  navvy  would  count  for  naught,  and 
as  time  has  rolled  by  inventive  effort  and  engineering  skill 
have  contrived  more  and  more  wonderful  devices  to  enable 
the  epoch-making  work  to  be  fulfilled  in  the  shortest  space 
of  time.  There  is  the  steam  shovel,  which  will  remove 
two  and  a  half  cubic  yards  of  miscellaneous  rubble  with 
every  swing  of  its  ponderous  arm ;  the  grader,  whereby 
the  soil  is  ploughed  up  and  displaced  by  an  endless  chain 
of  buckets  into  capacious  wagons  for  removal ;  the  drag 
shovel,  a  huge  scoop  attached  to  the  end  of  a  chain  which 
is  pulled  along  the  ground  from  a  stationary  point  by  steam 
power,  becoming  charged  with  material  in  its  progress,  and 
thus  fashioning  the  cutting ;  the  monitor,  whereby  tons  of 
gravel  are  washed  down  the  mountain-side  under  the  dis- 
integrating force  of  a  powerful  jet  of  water  similar  to  a 
fireman's  hose;  and  a  host  of  other  wonderful  implements, 
all  devised  for  the  express  purpose  of  expediting  the  work 
in  hand.  Gunpowder  and  dynamite  are  invaluable  hand- 
maids, and  to-day  are  used  with  an  astonishing  prodigality. 
Indeed,  when  the  advance  is  through  rock  their  services  are 
indispensable.  Crags,  cliffs  and  even  whole  hills  are  blown 
away  bodily  by  their  agency,  and  the  cost  often  runs  into 
thousands  of  pounds,  miniature  volcanoes  being  produced 
by  the  upheavals. 

Those  who  have  travelled  over  many  remarkable  railway 
systems  in  various  parts  of  the  world  where  striking 


A    RAILWAY   CONSTRUCTION    CAMP   AMONG   THE    MOUNTAINS 


BUILDING   A   HIGH    BANK    ON    THE    DELAWARE, 
LACKAWANNA   AND   WESTERN    RAILWAY,    U.S.A.,    BY    MODERN    METHODS 

An  overhead  cableway  was  stretched  across  the  depression,  from  which  a  swinging 
line  was  suspended,  and  on  which  the  trucks  were  backed  to  be  emptied. 


THE    HUGE   STEAM    SHOVEL   WHICH    TAKES   SOME    3    TONS 
OF    SPOIL   WITH    EVERY    BITE 


THE    DRAG-LINE    SHOVEL   WHICH 
SCOOPS    UP   THE    EARTH    IN   THE    CUTTING   AS    IT    IS    PULLED   ALONG 

THE    RAILWAY    BUILDERS'   ,HEAVY   ARTILLERY 


THE   ROMANCE   OF   CONSTRUCTION          17 

evidences  of  the  engineer's  skill  are  apparent  upon  a  liberal 
scale,  have  pointed  to  the  absence  of  any  such  evidences 
of  activity  in  these  islands — "The  Home  of  the  Railway." 
But  this  to  a  certain  degree  is  inevitable.  The  engineer 
was  not  faced  with  such  physical  conditions  when  he 
essayed  to  gridiron  this  country  as  confronted  him  in  the 
Americas  or  Asia.  There  are  no  towering  ranges  of 
eternally  snow-wreathed  mountains  to  overcome,  no  wildly 
boiling  wide  rivers  to  span,  no  yawning  canyons  to  thread 
or  stretches  of  sterile  desert  to  traverse.  Yet  wrhen  Stephen- 
son  and  his  contemporaries  sought  to  achieve  the  railway 
conquest  of  Great  Britain  they  encountered  many  obstacles 
which  to  them,  with  their  crude  appliances,  were  every  whit 
as  stupendous  as  those  which  rear  up  before  the  engineer 
to-day,  although  he  is  equipped  with  an  extensive  assort- 
ment of  heavy  artillery  to  assist  him  in  his  contest  against 
the  forces  of  Nature.  Moreover,  some  of  the  expedients 
which  Stephenson  evolved  to  overcome  a  difficult  situation 
are  practised  to-day  merely  because  the  intervening  eighty 
years  have  not  provided  any  better  solution  of  a  problem 
of  a  similar  character. 

Every  one  has  read  how  Stephenson  was  for  a  time 
nonplussed  by  the  treacherous  bog  Chat  Moss,  across 
which  now  speed  the  expresses  of  the  London  &  North- 
Western  railway.  It  is  the  largest  stretch  of  swamp  in 
the  country,  and  many  wiseacres  prophesied  that  there 
Stephenson  would  meet  his  Waterloo  when  he  essayed  to 
carry  the  Manchester  &  Liverpool  railway  over  its 
unstable  surface.  Yet  Stephenson  plodded  along  uncon- 
cerned and  achieved  success  in  a  novel  manner.  He  laid 
branches  of  trees  and  hedge  cuttings  upon  the  surface  of 
the  bog,  and  upon  the  softest  patches  pressed  hurdles  inter- 
twined with  heather  into  service.  Upon  this  network  he 
laid  a  layer  of  rock  and  gravel,  which  caused  the  foundation 
to  sink  somewhat  into  the  morass.  This  formed  the  per- 
manent way,  and  its  peculiar  character  provoked  more 
than  one  scornful  criticism.  But  its  stability  confounded 
the  critics, 
c 


1 8      RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

To-day  in  foreign  countries  where  huge  stretches  of 
swamp  bar  the  progress  of  the  iron  road  the  self-same 
principle  is  adopted,  and  it  is  known  as  "corduroying" 
or  "cross-waying."  In  the  northern  States,  Canada  and 
Siberia — the  latter  country  and  Canada  especially — the 
"muskeg,"  or  "tundra,"  as  this  treacherous  land  is  called, 
often  stretches  for  miles.  One  can  sound  it  sedulously  to 
a  great  depth,  and  then  will  fail  to  touch  the  bottom.  The 
soddened  decayed  vegetable  matter  merely  fills  a  large 
depression  which  cannot  be  drained.  The  builders  waste 
no  time  attempting  to  build  up  a  solid  earthen  embank- 
ment resting  on  the  submerged  solid  floor  of  the  bog. 
They  fashion  a  huge  mattress  of  trees.  Large  trunks  are 
laid  horizontally  and  longitudinally  to  the  track.  Upon 
these  are  laid  transversely  two  or  three  layers  of  shorter 
logs,  the  whole  being  secured  together  firmly.  A  topmost 
layer  of  branches  forming  a  kind  of  thatching  completes 
the  structure. 

At  times  these  mattresses  assume  respectable  propor- 
tions. I  have  stood  beside  some  almost  as  thick  as  a  man 
is  tall,  and  they  constituted  quite  formidable  pieces  of 
work.  When  the  corduroy  is  completed  a  layer  of  rock  is 
applied,  and  upon  this  is  dumped  the  gravel  and  other 
material  forming  the  embankment.  Under  the  weight  thus 
superimposed  the  mattress  sinks  deeply  into  the  morass 
and  rests  firmly.  The  earthen  ridge  is  continued  to  the 
requisite  height;  the  whole  of  the  embankment  for  the 
track  rests  upon  the  fabrication  of  tree-trunks.  Yet  the 
whole  is  just  as  solid  as  if  resting  upon  granite.  One 
might  remark  that  it  appears  an  indifferent  foundation 
upon  which  to  pile  up  a  mass  of  earth  weighing  several 
hundred  tons,  and  that  in  a  short  time  the  wood,  under 
decomposition  and  collapse,  would  precipitate  a  sub- 
sidence. But  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  corduroy  grows 
stronger  with  every  passing  day.  The  wood  immersed  in 
the  viscous  liquid  and  preserved  from  all  contact  with  the 
atmosphere  becomes  waterlogged,  until  at  last  it  assumes 
the  character  of  bog-oak  and  is  practically  indestructible. 


THE   ROMANCE    OF   CONSTRUCTION          19 

Stephenson  was  called  upon  to  cope  with  another 
critical  situation  upon  the  same  railway.  The  great  tunnel 
at  Kilsby  was  in  course  of  construction,  but  work  had 
not  proceeded  very  far  when  the  contractors  struck  a  large 
pocket  of  water  and  quicksand.  They  combated  this 
adversary  for  several  months,  and  then,  unable  to  make 
any  appreciable  headway,  threw  up  the  contract.  Efforts 
were  made  to  induce  other  firms  to  accept  the  task,  but  in 
vain.  At  last  Stephenson  was  called  upon  to  rescue  the 
undertaking  from  failure.  The  outlook  was  far  from 
promising,  for  the  shaft  was  being  sunk  through  material 
which  the  engineer  always  regards  askance — a  shale — 
while  the  fault  in  which  reposed  a  large  volume  of  water 
and  sand  was  of  large  proportions.  Stephenson  concluded 
that  the  best  way  to  cope  with  the  problem  was  to  pump 
out  the  water  first,  and  accordingly  he  rigged  up  an 
elaborate  plant  capable  of  handling  1,800  gallons  per 
minute,  and  this  was  kept  going  day  and  night.  Even 
then,  however,  it  was  only  by  superhuman  effort  that  the 
water  was  kept  down.  One  day  after  Stephenson  had 
been  on  the  scene  about  six  months,  the  water  got  the 
upper  hand  and  flooded  the  tunnel  to  such  a  depth  that 
the  men  and  materials  had  to  be  floated  in  on  rafts. 

This  undertaking,  howrever,  served  to  demonstrate  to 
those  anxious  to  participate  in  railway-building  specula- 
tions how  estimated  expenses  for  definite  work  might  be 
sent  astray  seriously,  and  how  formidable  and  ubiquitous 
was  the  unexpected  factor  in  such  work.  The  original 
contractor  offered  to  complete  the  burrow,  7,169  feet  in 
length,  under  the  Kilsby  Ridge  for  some  ,£90,000.  By 
the  time  the  last  brick  of  the  lining  had  been  laid  and 
the  tunnel  was  ready  for  use  over  ,£300,000  had  been 
expended. 

The  attempt  to  pierce  this  tunnel  at  that  time,  however, 
was  a  far  more  difficult  enterprise  than  it  would  be  to-day. 
The  engineers  had  not  the  powerful  marvellous  appliances 
such  as  serve  the  contractor's  purposes  now.  Electric 
energy  was  unknown,  the  hydraulic  shield  for  driving 
c  2 


20      RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF    THE    WORLD 

tunnels  had  yet  to  be  invented,  the  steam  shovel  had  not 
been  thought  of — in  short,  the  contractor  was  handicapped 
on  every  side  by  the  crude  character  of  his  tools.  Some 
of  these  appliances  which  the  modern  railway-builder  uses 
are  little  short  of  wonderful,  both  in  time-  and  labour- 
saving  qualities,  and  the  majority  have  been  born  of 
necessity. 

For  instance,  in  the  early  railway  days  on  the  American 
continent  too  much  time  would  have  been  occupied  in 
building  lofty  earthen  embankments  among  the  mountains. 
Accordingly  the  rifts  and  gullies  were  spanned  by  timber 
trestles.  But  the  woodwork  was  perishable,  and  there  was 
always  the  risk  of  fire  demolishing  the  structure  and  pre- 
cipitating disaster  to  a  passing  train.  The  obvious  remedy 
was  to  replace  the  wood  by  metal,  but  the  expense  was  a 
deterrent  factor. 

One  day  a  workman  on  one  of  the  mountain  sections 
suggested  that  the  woodwork  should  be  left  intact,  but 
buried  beneath  a  mass  of  earth.  The  suggestion  was 
received  with  ridicule  because,  as  the  divisional  engineer 
pointed  out,  several  thousand  men  and  several  hundred 
trucks  and  dozens  of  locomotives  would  be  required  to 
handle  the  material,  while  the  time  the  task  would  occupy 
was  incalculable.  The  workman  listened  to  the  criticisms, 
and  then  interposed  with  the  quiet  comment  that  he  did  not 
suggest  using  any  trains  and  trucks,  and  that  a  few  dozen 
men  would  be  ample  to  complete  the  work.  The  divisional 
engineer  was  somewhat  astonished,  and  at  first  thought 
the  man  had  taken  leave  of  his  senses.  Then  the  workman 
revealed  his  intentions.  He  would  not  resort  to  steam 
shovels  or  any  other  device  of  that  character.  He  had 
observed  minutely  and  tested  the  power  of  a  jet  of  water, 
and  consequently  had  conceived  an  idea  to  wash  down 
masses  of  gravel  by  means  of  very  powerful  jets  of  water. 
There  was  no  need  even  to  rig  up  a  steam  engine  and 
pump  to  supply  the  requisite  force  to  the  water  flying  from 
the  nozzle.  High  up  on  the  mountain-side  was  a  creek. 
A  dam  could  be  thrown  across  this  torrent  at  little  cost, 


THE   ROMANCE   OF   CONSTRUCTION          21 

and  the  pent-up  water  could  be  led  down  to  the  working 
site  below  through  piping,  and  the  pressure  thus  secured 
by  gravitation  would  be  more  than  ample  for  the  purpose. 
The  gravel  as  washed  out  of  the  hillside  would  be  directed 
into  wooden  conduits  and  led  to  points  around  the  trestles, 
where  it  would  be  discharged  to  build  up  the  embankment. 

It  was  a  simple  means  of  overcoming  a  perplexing  diffi- 
culty. The  divisional  engineer  was  so  impressed  with  its 
feasibility  that  he  secured  the  requisite  permission  for  the 
workman  to  put  his  suggestion  into  practical  form.  The 
creek  was  dammed  by  throwing  trees  from  bank  to  bank, 
and  from  the  little  pond  thus  formed  the  water  was  led 
several  hundred  feet  down  the  mountain-side  through  pipes 
to  the  large  nozzles.  A  small  network  of  timber  conduits 
were  fashioned  to  convey  the  displaced  gravel  to  the  feet 
of  the  timber  trestle. 

In  a  short  time  work  was  commenced,  and  as  the  jets 
of  water  struck  against  the  solid  face  of  the  mountain, 
the  soft  earth  and  gravel  were  washed  out  at  tremendous 
speed.  Heavy  streams  of  mud  poured  down  the  conduits. 
The  hill  disappeared  like  magic  under  the  scouring  action 
of  the  harnessed  water,  to  reappear  in  a  symmetrically- 
shaped  ridge  around  the  woodwork,  which  grew  rapidly  in 
height  until  the  level  of  the  railway  was  gained.  The 
embankment  thus  formed  was  found  to  be  as  solid  and 
stable  as  if  built  by  dumping,  and  the  whole  task  was 
accomplished  in  a  few  weeks.  While  the  work  was  in 
progress  the  chief  engineer  and  his  lieutenant  visited  the 
spot  and  watched  the  building  of  the  embankment  by 
hydraulic  sluicing  with  intense  interest.  Its  complete 
success  in  this  initial  experiment  secured  its  adoption,  and 
in  a  short  space  of  time,  where  the  conditions  permitted, 
all  the  trestles  among  the  mountains  were  buried  beneath 
a  ridge  of  earth  built  up  by  a  jet  of  water. 

While  I  was  being  shown  some  of  the  most  impressive 
pieces  of  railway  engineering  among  the  Cascades,  my 
cicerone,  an  English  engineer  and  railway-builder,  after 
describing  the  features  whereby  the  Great  Northern  railway 


22      RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF    THE    WORLD 

is  taken  down  to  the  coast,  remarked,  "I  wonder  what 
Brunei  would  have  done  among  these  mountains  ?  I  guess 
he  would  have  revelled  in  the  difficulties  they  offered." 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  great  engineer  would  have 
found  the  ascent  of  the  steep  slopes  and  the  crossing  of 
the  great  gulches  an  extensive  field  for  the  exercise  of  his 
genius.  His  work  among  the  vales  of  Cornwall  and  along 
the  rugged  seashore  of  Wicklow,  Ireland,  indicate  this  fact 
only  too  plainly.  In  these  two  districts  are  to  be  found 
the  nearest  approaches  to  spectacular  work  that  these 
islands  can  afford.  True  there  are  no  wonderful  loops  and 
great  terraces  winding  up  and  down  mountain-sides,  but 
there  is  the  daring  and  lofty  spanning  of  yawning  valleys, 
and  the  driving  of  a  narrow  pathway  along  steep  rocky 
slopes. 

For  something  like  half  a  century  Brunei's  spidery  timber 
viaducts  of  Cornwall  constituted  one  of  the  sights  of  that 
county.     The   location,    with    its   grades   and   curves,    as 
carried   through    Cornwall,    has   been    assailed   by   many 
critics,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  when  Brunei  pene- 
trated  the   English   Riviera,    railway   operation   was  very 
different  from  what  it  is  to-day.     Engines  and  train  loads 
were  light,  while  money  was  by  no  means  plentiful.    The 
engineer  was  compelled  to  achieve  his  object  at  the  most 
moderate  cost,  but  the  very  fact  that  he  was  hampered  in 
this  connection  served  to  influence  him  in  the  accomplish- 
ment  of   monumental   work.      His   timber   viaducts   were 
remarkable   for   the   novel   character   of  their   design   and 
their  extent.     In  the  course  of  sixty  miles  he  had  to  span 
no  less  than  thirty-four  valleys  in  this  manner,  the  aggre- 
gate  length   of  the   wooden   structures   being   about  four 
miles.     The  engineer  adopted  timber  as  a  constructional 
material  because  it  was  cheaper  than  iron,  and  American 
oak  was  used  extensively.     Some  were  of  great  height, 
the  St.  Pinnock  viaduct,   for  instance,  carrying  the  train 
153    feet    above    the    bottom    of    the    valley,    while    others 
attained    great    lengths,    the    Landore    viaduct    measuring 
1,760  feet  from  end  to  end. 


THE   ROMANCE   OF   CONSTRUCTION          23 

These  evidences  of  Brunei's  work,  however,  are  dis- 
appearing under  the  exigencies  of  to-day.  Timber  is 
being  replaced  by  steel  and  granite  to  meet  the  increased 
weights  and  speeds  of  trains.  The  location  through  the 
county  also  is  undergoing  revision,  the  sharp  curves  intro- 
duced by  Brunei  being  eased  or  eliminated,  while  the 
grades  are  being  flattened.  Consequently  in  a  few  years 
the  name  of  Brunei  in  Cornwall  will  be  naught  but  a 
memory.  Fortunately  other  evidences  of  his  handiwork 
abound  on  this  system  notably  in  the  Saltash,  Chepstow 
and  Maidenhead  bridges,  as  well  as  the  Box  and  Foxwood 
tunnels. 

In  Ireland,  however,  a  far  more  daring  expression  of  his 
skill  is  offered.  This  is  the  stretch  of  line  along  the  sea- 
shore between  Bray  and  Wicklow,  which  now  forms  part 
of  the  Dublin  &  South-Eastern  railway.  This  was  the 
first  stretch  of  iron  road  to  be  opened  in  the  Emerald  Isle, 
the  original  one  and  three-quarter  miles  being  operated  in 
the  first  instance  by  the  system  of  atmospheric  propulsion, 
whereby  the  train  was  hauled  along  the  metals  by  suction. 

When  it  was  decided  to  connect  Wicklow  with  Bray, 
the  trying  character  of  the  country  lying  between  the  two 
points,  and  especially  of  Bray  Head,  demanded  a  master- 
hand  to  effect  the  location  and  to  carry  the  building  opera- 
tions through  to  success.  It  was  a  matter  of  sixteen  miles, 
but  they  proved  perhaps  the  most  trying  sixteen  miles  of 
railway  construction  ever  attempted  in  this  country.  It 
was  stated  that  Bray  Head  would  defy  conquest,  for  it 
was  approachable  only  through  very  rocky  country,  and 
it  is  quite  possible  that  the  gloomy  outlook  was  responsible 
for  tempting  Brunei  to  achieve  something  bold  and 
striking.  There  was  no  need  to  have  carried  the  line  in 
this  direction,  a  fact  which  is  realised  to-day,  for  by  making 
a  detour  inland  an  easier  location  could  have  been  found, 
and  the  present  generation  would  not  have  been  called 
upon  to  pour  out  heavy  sums  of  money  to  keep  their  line 
intact.  Brunei's  vanity  has  cost  the  railway  company 
several  thousands  of  pounds  since  the  line  was  opened.  It 


24      RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF    THE    WORLD 

is  only  by  superhuman  effort  that  the  railway  is  not 
devoured  by  the  sea,  over  ,£40,000,  or  $200,000,  having 
been  expended  in  defence  works  over  this  sixteen  miles  of 
line  during  a  period  of  ten  years  alone. 

Apart  from  this  unsatisfactory  feature  the  line  is  a  con- 
stant source  of  anxiety.  A  little  to  the  south  of  Bray  is 
Bramstone  tunnel  and  a  wild  ravine.  This  gulch  attracted 
the  engineer.  Instead  of  avoiding  it,  he  bridged  it  with  a 
wooden  viaduct  300  feet  long  by  75  feet  high.  Before  it 
was  quite  completed  it  was  destroyed  in  a  single  night, 
the  demolished  timbers  being  carried  out  to  sea.  A  few 
years  later,  while  a  train  was  crossing,  the  engine  left  the 
metals  and  precipitated  a  sensational  accident.  Investiga- 
tion revealed  the  fact  that  it  was  due  to  the  action  of  the 
waves,  which,  battering  against  the  piers  of  the  viaduct, 
had  so  vibrated  the  structure  as  to  throw  the  rails  out 
of  gauge. 

Thereupon  it  was  decided  to  abandon  the  viaduct  and 
drive  the  line  directly  through  the  rocky  promontory.  The 
traveller  still  can  see  traces  of  the  original  route  in  the 
decaying  approaches  to  the  gap  formerly  conquered  by  a 
timber  trestle. 

Still  it  was  a  grim  fight  with  Nature  for  every  foot  of 
the  way.  A  mere  ledge  suffices  to  carry  the  track,  and 
this  gallery  is  often  at  a  level  of  seventy  feet  above  the 
sea  beneath.  Here  and  there  the  line  is  enclosed  by  a  roof 
recalling  the  snow-sheds  of  the  Selkirks  or  Cascades,  to 
protect  the  rails  from  stones  bouncing  down  the  cliffs. 
Curiously  enough,  the  method  in  which  Brunei  drove  his 
line  along  this  forbidding  wild  shore  recalls  the  staggering 
feats  accomplished  in  the  American  mountains,  and  indeed 
a  journey  over  this  railway  will  provide  a  thrill  in  miniature 
such  as  results  from  a  toil  through  the  mountain  backbone 
of  the  New  World.  The  dislodgment  of  massive  boulders 
and  landslides  are  so  frequent  that  flagmen  have  to  be 
retained  to  keep  a  vigilant  eye  on  the  track  and  to  warn 
passing  trains.  At  places  long  walls  have  been  erected 
high  on  the  hillside  to  arrest  the  descent  of  the  movements 


THE   ROMANCE    OF   CONSTRUCTION          25 

of  loose  rock  on  the  one  hand,  while  on  the  other  the  cliff 
face  has  been  cut  into  terraces  to  break  the  force  of  the 
waves,  and  together  with  retaining  walls  and  groynes,  seek 
to  counteract  the  insidious  erosion  of  the  sea. 

When  Bray  Head  has  been  passed  the  physical  character 
of  the  country  changes  with  startling  suddenness  from 
jagged  rock  to  clay.  Here  the  engineer  was  brought  to 
fierce  grips  with  his  adversary.  The  clay  is  honeycombed  on 
all  sides  with  springs,  and  there  is  a  constant  war  between 
the  engineer  and  Nature  for  supremacy.  Building  the  line 
was  exacting  indeed,  but  the  puzzles  which  had  to  be 
unravelled  then  are  equalled  by  those  attending  the  pre- 
servation of  the  road.  The  battle  was  waged  relentlessly 
for  some  years,  but  the  sea  won ;  the  engineers  were  com- 
pelled to  re-lay  their  track  some  distance  inland. 

The  shareholders  in  the  railway  are  paying  dearly  for 
Brunei's  colossal  error.  Indeed,  it  is  a  poor  return  for 
an  outlay  of  over  ^"400,000,  or  $2,000,000,  which  were 
sunk  in  this  sixteen  miles  of  line.  It  may  be  wonderful 
engineering,  but  it  is  not  business.  The*  railway  company 
are  anxious  to  abandon  this  location  and  to  rebuild  the 
line  along  the  route  it  should  have  followed  in  the  first 
instance.  At  the  present  such  a  result  is  not  financially 
possible,  but  its  realisation  is  merely  a  question  of  time. 

One  inspiriting  phase  of  the  railway-builder's  work  is 
the  race  against  time,  and  in  the  fulfilment  of  such  a  task 
many  an  astonishing  performance  has  been  achieved. 
When  one  of  the  great  American  railways  was  pushing 
its  way  to  the  Pacific  coast,  it  required  a  tunnel  to  be 
driven  for  two  miles  through  the  Cascades.  It  was  a 
daring  piece  of  work,  and  the  railway  company,  after 
considering  the  scheme,  decided  that  it  could  be  accom- 
plished cheaper  and  more  quickly  under  contract  than  by 
direct  labour.  Upon  the  advice  of  their  surveyors  they  set 
the  time  for  its  completion  at  twenty-eight  months.  Con- 
sidering the  remote  situation  of  the  work  the  feat  was  con- 
sidered absolutely  impracticable,  and  no  recognised  con- 
tractor could  be  prevailed  upon  to  incur  the  risk. 


26     RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

The  company,  however,  was  convinced  that  some  daring 
spirit  existed  who  could,  and  would,  fulfil  their  require- 
ments, so  they  advertised  for  tenders.  When  these  were 
perused  it  was  found  that  one  man  was  willing  to  meet 
the  time-limit  and  at  a  price  far  below  competitors.  His 
bid  was  accepted.  That  man  was  Bennett,  and  he  lost  no 
time  in  setting  his  carefully-laid  plans  in  motion. 

He  was  over  three  thousand  miles  from  the  country  in 
which  the  tunnel  was  to  be  driven,  yet  before  the  ink  on 
the  contract  was  dry  he  had  wired  to  his  assistant  on  the 
Pacific  coast  to  hurry  forward  all  requisite  appliances, 
while  he  himself  purchased  an  elaborate  plant  of  the  most 
modern  type  to  be  shipped  to  the  railway  point  nearest 
the  site.  From  this  station  he  had  to  transport  every  ounce 
of  material  for  a  distance  of  eighty-two  miles  through  the 
roughest  and  most  broken  mountainous  country  it  is 
possible  to  conceive. 

There  was  no  road,  so  he  had  to  blaze  one  through  the 
deadfall  and  littered  rock,  fording  creeks  and  streams  and 
toiling  through  viscous  mud.  The  wagons  sank  above  the 
axles,  and  had  to  be  hauled  through  the  muskeg  by  block 
and  tackle.  In  this  way,  by  sheer  physical  effort,  He  gained 
the  mountain  which  was  to  be  pierced.  It  took  him  a 
solid  six  months  to  get  his  forces  and  artillery  to  the  spot, 
leaving  him  scarcely  twenty-two  months  in  which  to  hew 
the  passage  through  the  solid  rock. 

So  pressing  was  time  that  he  never  permitted  an  hour's 
cessation  day  or  night.  An  agent  on  the  coast  recruited 
men  by  the  score  and  dispatched  them  up  country  in  large 
corps.  As  they  arrived  they  were  divided  into  six-hour 
shifts  on  either  side  of  the  mountain,  and  in  this  way  toil 
was  continued  unbrokenly  throughout  the  whole  twenty- 
four  hours.  When  he  had  settled  down  to  work  in  grim 
earnest  wages  were  absorbing  money  at  the  rate  of  nearly 
^2,000,  or  $10,000,  per  week. 

Preliminary  to  embarking  upon  the  contract  he  had 
prepared  careful  calculations  showing  him  how  much  rock 
it  was  requisite  to  remove  every  day  to  effect  completion 


THE   ROMANCE   OF   CONSTRUCTION          27 

in  time,  and  he  made  up  his  mind  to  hold  to  this  table 
by  hook  or  by  crook.  A  tunnel  face  is  not  a  spot  where 
much  leeway  can  be  made  up,  for  only  a  certain  number  of 
men  can  be  crowded  upon  its  limited  area.  But  he  met 
this  disadvantage  by  spurring  the  drillers  to  superhuman 
effort  by  the  offer  of  an  attractive  bonus.  In  this  way  he 
was  able  to  maintain  the  advance  he  had  calculated  per 
day  until  the  heart  of  the  mountain  was  gained,  when 
owing  to  the  extreme  hardness  of  the  rock  the  men  could 
not  help  falling  behind  the  scheduled  progress.  Now 
and  again,  however,  when  they  encountered  a  softer  stretch 
of  material  they  were  able  to  make  up  lost  time. 

The  months  sped  by;  the  contracted  time  for  completion 
loomed  nearer  and  nearer.  Determined  not  to  be  beaten, 
Bennett  urged  his  drillers  harder  and  harder,  offering 
fancy  wages  for  additional  effort.  The  strain  wore  him 
almost  to  a  skeleton ;  he  scarcely  slept,  so  haunted  was  he 
by  the  determination  to  fulfil  his  side  of  the  bargain. 
Checking  and  rechecking  of  the  finished  work  convinced 
him  that  the  opposing  parties  could  not  be  far  apart  in 
the  heart  of  the  Cascades. 

One  morning  the  men  on  one  side  paused  momentarily 
in  their  drilling.  They  could  hear  the  faint  muffled  chink, 
chink  of  drills.  It  was  the  party  advancing  from  the  west. 
With  a  loud  cheer,  answered  by  a  ghostly  sepulchral 
hurrah,  both  parties  bent  to  their  tasks  with  redoubled 
energy.  Before  long  a  gaping  hole  was  revealed  in 
the  heading.  The  two  forces  had  met — the  tunnel  was 
pierced.  Without  hesitation  they  set  to  widening  the 
breach  out  to  its  appointed  dimensions,  and  at  last,  with 
a  sigh  of  relief,  threw  down  their  tools.  The  tunnel  was 
finished  practically,  and  there  were  seven  days  or  so  to 
spare. 

In  another  instance  a  railway  company  required  a  bridge 
to  be  opened  within  a  certain  period.  Its  accomplishment 
on  time  meant  the  accretion  of  a  large  sum  of  money  to 
the  treasury,  and  accordingly  a  bounty  of  some  ,£5,000, 
or  $25,000,  was  offered  to  the  firm  building  the  bridge. 


28      RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

The  latter  in  turn  offered  a  portion  to  the  men  responsible 
for  the  actual  work.  Under  the  incentive  of  this  offer  the 
riveters  and  erectors  strove  might  and  main.  The  odds 
were  against  them  hopelessly,  but  general  co-operation 
enabled  the  work  to  go  forward  with  great  speed.  By 
maintaining  this  high  pressure  the  huge  fabric  assumed  its 
definite  shape  in  quick  time,  and  the  last  rivet  was  driven 
home  with  a  resounding  cheer  a  few  minutes  before  the 
expiration  of  the  stipulated  time. 

Yet  railway  construction  has  its  farcical  side,  especially 
in  America.  Conflicting  interests  often  clash,  and  then 
lively  times  ensue.  In  Canada  it  has  been  no  unusual  sight 
to  see  an  existing  railway  rush  a  large  gang  of  workmen 
to  a  point  threatened  with  invasion  by  a  rival.  Their 
presence  ostensibly  is  to  improve  the  line  in  possession, 
but  in  reality  the  men  are  drafted  there  to  thwart  the  com- 
petitive enterprise.  This  is  the  "fighting  gang,"  and  it 
is  rightly  named,  because  the  opposing  forces  often  meet 
and  a  free  fight  results. 

When  these  tactics  are  waged  by  opposing  railway 
magnates  the  struggle  is  often  bitter  and  long  drawn  out. 
It  was  so  when  J.  J.  Hill  and  Harriman  came  to  close 
grips  in  Oregon.  The  former  great  railway-builder  decided 
to  carry  a  line  down  to  the  coast  along  the  bank  of  the 
Columbia  River.  Harriman  construed  this  act  as  an 
invasion  of  his  preserves,  and  spared  no  effort  to  defeat 
the  "Grand  Old  Railway-Builder  of  the  West,"  as  J.J.  Hill 
is  called  popularly.  Directly  Hill's  proposals  became 
known,  Harriman,  to  secure  his  legal  status,  revived  a 
defunct  project  known  as  the  "Wallula  Pacific  railway," 
which  had  been  incorporated  so  many  years  before,  and 
yet  had  accomplished  so  little,  as  to  be  forgotten.  Hill 
was  coming  down  the  north  bank  of  the  Columbia,  and 
suddenly  Harriman  discovered  that  his  moribund  project 
was  to  follow  the  same  course.  The  result  was  that  two 
rival  constructional  forces  appeared  on  the  scene,  one 
bent  on  building  a  line,  and  the  other  determined  to  prevent 
its  realisation.  A  hail  of  rock  rained  from  one  camp  to  the 


THE   ROMANCE   OF   CONSTRUCTION          29 

other,  and  the  grade  was  demolished  as  rapidly  as 
fashioned.  One  day  the  Hill  navvies  were  in  possession, 
the  next,  through  being  outnumbered,  they  were  driven  out 
and  the  Harriman  army  held  the  position,  only  to  evacuate 
it  when  the  former  reappeared  with  reinforcements.  No 
blood  was  spilt,  but  it  came  perilously  near  it  when  a  navvy 
on  one  side  threw  a  piece  of  rock  harder  against  an  oppos- 
ing workman  than  the  latter  appreciated.  Injuries  were 
numerous,  and  one  day  the  aspect  became  so  threatening 
that  a  pitched  battle  appeared  certain.  At  times,  however, 
the  battle  became  Gilbertian.  The  rivals  merely  played 
catchball  with  pieces  of  rock,  tossing  the  missiles  at  one 
another  with  considerable  banter  and  amid  a  rain  of  jokes. 
For  eighteen  months  this  state  of  affairs  prevailed,  and 
then  the  courts  deciding  against  Harriman,  he  was  forced 
to  retire  from  the  scene.  Directly  he  did  so,  his  gangs 
of  navvies  walked  over  to  the  opposite  camp,  because  from 
their  point  of  view  Hill's  money  was  just  as  good  as  that 
of  Harriman.  It  was  immaterial  to  them  for  which  side 
they  worked,  so  long  as  they  were  paid  for  it.  The  result 
was  that  the  two  gangs  which  had  been  engaged  in  more 
or  less  deadly  strife,  now  worked  harmoniously  side  by 
side  to  carry  the  Hill  line  into  Portland.  Such  tactics  as 
these,  however,  come  somewhat  as  an  interlude  to  the  grim 
tussle  with  Nature  which  is  the  railway-builder's  invariable 
lot. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  BORING  OF  THE  GOTTHARD  TUNNEL 

THE  little  country  of  Switzerland,  as  is  well  known,  is 
a  tumbled  mass  of  snow-clad  mountain  ranges.  On  the 
Italian  frontier,  however,  this  natural  barrier  becomes  more 
rugged  and  defiant,  some  of  the  peaks  towering  10,000  feet 
or  higher  into  the  clouds.  For  centuries  this  frontier  chain 
so  successfully  walled  in  the  Helvetians  that  they  could 
not  pass  into  Italy  without  making  a  wearisome  detour. 
Travelling  from  one  country  to  the  other  before  George 
Stephenson  demonstrated  the  possibilities  of  the  steam 
engine  running  on  rails,  therefore,  was  a  journey  not  to 
be  lightly  undertaken,  for  it  occupied  weeks.  An  effort 
to  ease  this  situation  was  made  so  far  back  as  the  thirteenth 
century  by  the  blazing  of  a  footpath  over  the  St.  Gotthard, 
but  it  was  a  mere  dangerous  and  dizzy  trail.  Little 
wonder,  therefore,  that  it  was  not  favoured  by  other  than 
the  more  adventurous. 

It  was  not  until  about  a  century  ago  that  the  first 
vehicle  lumbered  over  this  rugged  hump.  Then  the 
demand  for  closer  communication  between  the  two  countries 
prompted  the  ambitious  Helvetians  to  embark  upon  a 
costly  and  momentous  enterprise — the  building  of  a  post- 
road  over  the  mountain.  They  cut  a  roadway  i8J  feet 
wide,  with  an  average  grade  of  10  per  cent,  to  a  height  of 
6,936  feet  up  the  flanks  of  this  snow-topped  giant,  with  its 
deep  rifts,  rushing  rivers,  and  faced  the  terrors  of  the 
avalanche.  It  is  a  striking  piece  of  work,  for  at  places  the 
road  clings,  limpet-like,  to  perpendicular  walls,  describes 
sharp  twists  and  turns  sudden  corners.  Although  the 
people  could  ill  afford  the  expense  of  the  undertaking,  they 

30 


THE  BORING  OF  THE  GOTTHARD  TUNNEL     31 

carried  it  to  completion,  confident  that  untold  benefit  would 
accrue  from  its  provision. 

They  were  right  in  their  surmise.  That  mountain  road 
changed  completely  the  direction  of  the  stream  of  traffic 
flowing  between  Switzerland  and  Italy.  The  novelty  of 
the  route,  the  magnificent  panoramas  unfolded  from  every 
foot  of  its  length,  appealed  to  the  tourist  and  traveller  and 
they  bravely  essayed  the  "pass."  To-day  that  mountain 
road  is  trodden  but  seldom.  It  has  fallen  into  desuetude; 
the  railway  has  killed  its  utility. 

So  soon  as  the  iron  horse  invaded  the  little  country  it 
was  sought  to  carry  it  into  Italy  via  the  St.  Gotthard ;  not 
over  the  mountain  crest,  but  through  its  base.  Every 
engineer  nursed  the  ambition  to  overcome  that  frowning 
knot  with  the  steel  highway.  For  years  brilliant  minds 
lived,  dreamt,  and  died  obsessed  with  this  one  great  idea. 
Even  in  1846,  when  the  first  railway  was  opened  from 
Baden  to  Zurich,  preparations  were  made  to  carry  the  line 
onward  through  the  mountain  chain.  To  the  Swiss  people, 
boring  through  a  mountain  for  nine  miles  or  so  appeared 
no  more  difficult  than  burrowing  through  a  hillock  for  as 
many  yards.  It  was  only  a  question  of  time  and  expense. 

An  "Alpine  tunnel  fever"  set  in  with  terrible  malig- 
nancy, and  there  was  fierce  rivalry  and  jealousy  created 
between  the  various  railway  companies,  cantons  and  towns 
as  to  who  should  have  the  honour  of  completing  this  re- 
markable link.  Fortunately  the  Government  itself  pre- 
served a  cool  head,  turned  a  deaf  ear  to  entreaties,  refused 
concessions,  and  discouraged  any  possible  hope  of  financial 
aid.  The  last-named  factor  proved  the  greatest  stumbling- 
block,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  if  the  money  could  have 
been  obtained  for  such  an  enterprise  an  attempt  to  tunnel 
the  Alps  would  have  been  made  in  the  'fifties. 

Though  the  ambition  was  scotched  it  was  not  killed  by 
any  means,  for  a  few  years  later  the  same  scheme  was 
revived  and  more  keenly  discussed  than  ever.  The  French 
and  Italian  nations  resuscitated  the  project  by  co-operating 
in  the  effort  to  pierce  the  Col  de  Frdjus,  popularly  known 


32     RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

as  the  Mont  Cenis  tunnel.  The  first  stroke  of  the  pick- 
axe upon  this  momentous  enterprise  was  made  in  August, 
1857,  and  the  two  chief  engineers,  Grattoni  and  Sommeiller, 
pledged  themselves  to  complete  the  task  with  the  assistance 
of  the  French  and  Italian  governments.  In  the  face  of  the 
most  terrible  difficulties  that  could  be  conceived,  equipped 
with  tools  which  appear  puny  and  futile  in  comparison 
with  those  used  for  such  work  to-day,  they  cut,  blasted,  and 
excavated  their  way  through  yj  miles  of  dense  rock.  Boring 
from  either  end,  the  rock-hogs  broke  down  the  last  wall  of 
rock  on  Christmas  Day,  1870,  and  in  September  of  the 
following  year  a  shorter  and  more  direct  route  between  the 
two  countries  was  opened  to  traffic. 

The  progress  of  this  tunnel  was  watched  with  the  closest 
interest  by  the  Helvetians.  This  piercing  of  an  Alpine 
mountain  was  something  new  in  railway  engineering.  The 
wiseacres  croaked  that  it  would  never  be  completed;  that 
Nature  would  spring  some  sudden  surprise  upon  the 
engineers  in  the  depths  of  the  mountain  which  would  arrest 
the  whole  enterprise.  But  as  the  two  headings  slowly  but 
surely  approached  one  another,  and  the  engineers  broke 
down  their  obstacles  as  they  arose  with  commendable 
pluck  and  determination,  the  sceptics  became  silenced. 

The  pride  of  the  Swiss  was  wounded.  If  the  French  had 
Italians  could  accomplish  such  a  herculean  and  apparently 
impossible  task,  why  was  a  similar  idea  beyond  their 
powers?  The  "conquest  of  the  Alps"  broke  out  with 
renewed  vigour.  It  became  more  than  a  personal  issue ; 
it  blossomed  into  one  of  economic,  political  and  commercial 
importance.  Consequently,  before  the  Cenis  Tunnel  was 
opened  for  traffic,  the  preliminary  arrangements  for  bur- 
rowing through  the  St.  Gotthard  had  assumed  concrete 
shape.  But  it  had  been  a  wearisome  enterprise.  The  pro- 
moters had  to  battle  against  intrigue  and  jealousies  innu- 
merable on  the  part  of  private  individuals,  companies 
seeking  for  the  same  concession,  towns  and  departmental 
governments.  But  the  project  became  one  of  even  more 
than  national  importance ;  it  became  an  international  ques- 


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THE  BORING  OF  THE   GOTTHARD  TUNNEL     33 

tion.  The  provision  of  such  a  route  would  bring  northern 
Europe  into  closer  touch  with  Italy  and  her  ports  on  the 
Mediterranean.  That  fact  was  realised,  and  when  the 
company  incorporated  to  carry  out  the  work  announced 
that  the  task  was  far  too  risky  for  private  resources,  the 
governments  of  the  countries  most  intimately  interested  in 
the  fulfilment  of  the  project  promised  tangible  assistance 
in  the  form  of  substantial  subventions. 

The  path  of  the  tunnel  through  the  heart  of  the  moun- 
tain was  plotted  by  Mr.  M.  O.  Gelpke,  C.E.,  and  this  in 
itself  was  a  great  achievement.  Fifteen  stations  were  scat- 
tered over  the  mountain  slopes  for  the  manipulation  of  the 
survey  instruments,  and  many  of  these  were  situated  un- 
avoidably in  positions  very  difficult,  and  often  impossible, 
of  access.  Borings  were  made  to  ascertain  the  rock  strata 
which  would  have  to  be  pierced  by  Professor  Fritsch  of 
Frankfort,  and  from  the  result  of  these  essential  investiga- 
tions it  was  computed  that  the  work,  including  the  neces- 
sary railway  line  on  either  side  of  the  great  tunnel,  could 
be  completed  for  a  sum  of  ,£7,480,000,  or  $37,400,000.  The 
money  was  raised  by  guarantees  of  ;£i, 800,000  ($9,000,000) 
from  Italy,  .£800,000  ($4,000,000)  from  both  Germany  and 
Switzerland,  and  by  the  issue  of  shares  and  mortgage 
bonds  to  the  extent  of  ,£2,720,000,  or  $13,600,000.  As  a 
further  contribution  to  the  task,  the  Swiss  Government 
undertook  to  supervise  actual  construction. 

The  financial  arrangements  completed,  the  company  had 
to  search  for  a  man  to  bore  the  tunnel.  For  this  purpose 
tenders  were  sought  for  the  whole  contract.  The  terms  of 
the  latter  were  severe,  as  were  also  the  technical  conditions. 
The  tunnel  was  to  carry  a  double  track,  to  have  a  height 
of  19.68  feet  to  the  crown  of  the  arch,  and  a  maximum 
width  of  26.24  feet,  with  a  minimum  width  of  24.93  feet. 
The  tunnel  was  to  be  quite  straight,  with  the  exception  of 
a  slight  curve  at  the  southern  end,  where,  for  a  distance  of 
474  feet  from  the  entrance,  a  curve  of  984  feet  radius  was  to 
be  introduced  to  gain  Airolo  station.  The  rise  from  the 
northern  entrance  was  to  be  about  i  in  172  to  the  summit 
D 


34     RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

level  3,781  feet  above  the  sea,  followed  by  a  drop  of  i  in 
1000  to  the  southern  end.  These  gradients  falling  on 
either  side  from  the  centre  were  necessary  for  drainage, 
and  were  estimated  to  be  just  sufficient  to  ensure  the  water 
flowing  to  the  portals. 

Seven  tenders  were  submitted  for  the  enterprise,  the 
lowest  being  that  of  L.  Favre,  a  well-known  engineer  of 
Geneva,  who  had  completed  many  notable  railway  works 
in  Europe.  He  undertook  to  complete  the  tunnel  for 
,£2,000,000  ($10,000,000)  within  eight  years.  His  nearest 
competitor,  an  Italian  company,  wanted  twenty-five  percent, 
more,  but  would  not  guarantee  completion  within  less  than 
nine  years.  Monsieur  Favre  was  supported  by  a  body  of 
influential  capitalists,  and  the  contract  was  awarded  to  him. 

Having  sanctioned  the  project,  the  Government  was 
determined  that  it  should  be  completed,  and  resolved  that 
the  engineer  should  be  held  to  his  self-appointed  time  limit. 
The  penalty  it  stipulated  was  exacting.  For  every  day 
over  the  ninth  year  Favre  was  to  forfeit  ^200,  or  $1000, 
for  six  months,  and  then  double  that  penalty  per  day 
until  completion.  A  year  was  thus  allowed  over  and  above 
what  he  demanded  to  cope  with  any  unforeseen  contin- 
gencies that  might  arise  during  the  progress  of  the  task. 
Similarly,  M.  Favre  was  to  receive  a  premium  of  ,£200,  or 
$1000,  a  day  for  every  day  he  was  in  advance  of  the 
stipulated  period.  His  Italian  competitor,  while  agreeable 
to  the  forfeit,  stipulated  that  it  should  not  be  enforced  until 
after  the  eleventh  year,  which  terms  the  authorities  refused 
to  entertain.  To  ensure  securing  the  forfeit  money  should 
the  engineer  be  late,  Favre  was  compelled  to  deposit  a  sum 
of  .£320,000  ($1,600,000)  with  the  Government  before  a 
stone  was  moved. 

No  undertaking  of  such  a  magnitude  as  this  tunnel, 
although  protected  adequately  by  severe  restrictions,  ever 
has  been  carried  out  in  the  face  of  so  many  vicissitudes ;  no 
engineer  ever  has  been  so  harassed  as  was  M.  Favre.  From 
the  moment  the  tender  was  signed  and  sealed  troubles  com- 
menced, some  incidental  to  the  task,  others  purposely 


THE  BORING  OF  THE  GOTTHARD   TUNNEL     35 

thrown  in  his  way  by  jealous  outside  interests.  In  the 
first  place,  the  Government  undertook,  according  to  the 
terms  of  the  contract,  to  have  the  approaches  to  the  tunnel 
completed  so  that  he  could  commence  operations  without 
delay.  This  was  not  done.  Further  opposition  was  then 
encountered  from  another  and  unexpected  quarter,  which 
assumed  such  proportions  as  to  jeopardise  the  whole 
scheme.  Italy,  having  contributed  about  a  sixth  of  the 
cost,  and  who  therefore  had  an  important  voice  in  the 
matter,  demanded  that  half  the  work  should  be  granted 
to  the  Italian  engineers  who  had  been  engaged  upon  the 
Mont  Cenis  tunnel.  This  was  a  bitter  question,  and  it 
took  M.  Favre  two  weary  months  to  adjust  it. 

These  hindrances  at  last  settled  satisfactorily,  work  was 
commenced  on  the  northern  side  of  the  Alps  at  Goschenen 
on  June  4,  1872,  and  at  Airolo,  the  southern  portal,  on 
July  2  of  the  following  year.  The  preliminary  prepara- 
tions were  of  a  gigantic  character.  Though  M.  Favre  had 
sublet  the  constructional  contract  for  the  tunnel  itself,  he 
was  primarily  responsible  and  nursed  it  as  the  engineer- 
in-chief.  Huge  plants  had  to  be  installed  at  either  end  for 
supplying  the  various  demands  for  power  for  a  thousand- 
and-one  purposes.  At  the  northern  end  water  turbines 
were  laid  down,  driven  from  the  river  Reuss,  a  head  of 
water  of  279  feet  being  available.  At  the  Airolo  end  a 
similar  installation  was  established  and  operated  under  a 
water  head  of  541  feet  from  the  Tremola.  Subsequently, 
it  was  found  that  this  latter  supply  was  inadequate.  But 
M.  Favre  was  a  man  of  infinite  resource.  He  promptly 
built  a  viaduct  12,000  feet  in  length,  tapping  the  Tessin 
River,  and  thus  overcame  the  water  power  difficulty. 
Small  towns  sprang  up  at  either  end  around  the  respective 
portals  to  house  the  machinery,  the  workmen,  and 
innumerable  other  details. 

As  tunnel-boring  operations  upon  such  a  scale  as  this 
were  in  their  infancy,  this  engineer-in-chief  perforcedly 
had  to  break  a  great  deal  of  new  ground ;  to  carry  out  con- 
siderable pioneer  work.  Hitherto,  the  usual  tools  at  the 

D  2 


36     RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

service  of  the  excavators  were  the  pick-axe,  shovel,  chisel, 
and  sledge-hammer ;  but  such  implements  as  these  in  a 
work  of  this  magnitude  were  akin  to  forging  a  mighty 
crank  shaft  with  a  blacksmith's  hammer.  New  forces  had 
to  be  created.  The  Mont  Cenis  had  demonstrated  this 
fact,  and  in  the  course  of  its  realisation  a  new  tool  ap- 
peared. This  was  the  mechanical  percussion  rock  drill, 
operated  by  compressed  air  at  a  pressure  of  112  pounds  and 
upwards  per  square  inch.  To  furnish  the  requisite  energy 
to  the  tools  elaborate  air-compressing  plants  had  to  be  laid 
down.  These  were  designed  by  Professor  Colladon,  and 
they  were  capable  of  compressing  1,596  cubic  yards  of  air 
to  a  pressure  of  eight  atmospheres  every  minute,  the  power 
being  stored  in  huge  cylindrical  reservoirs,  not  unlike 
mammoth  steam  boilers,  from  which  the  conduits  extending 
to  the  working  faces  on  either  side  were  charged. 

The  scene  in  the  tunnel  was  impressive  in  the  extreme.  At 
the  working  face  a  little  gallery  was  bored,  about  eight  feet 
wide  by  the  same  in  height,  at  the  roof  of  the  tunnel.  The 
drilling  machines  were  mounted  on  travelling  carriages, 
with  their  perforating  chisels  jutting  ugly  and  business-like 
from  the  front.  With  the  pent-up  force  of  eight  atmo- 
spheres behind  them,  they  rapped  against  the  solid  rock 
and  slowly  but  surely  made  a  perforation.  At  frequent 
intervals  there  was  a  slight  stop,  the  chisel  point  was  with- 
drawn and  a  jet  of  water,  drawn  from  a  tender  hauled  up  in 
the  rear,  was  directed  into  the  hole,  when  the  chisel 
instantly  resumed  its  monotonous  round.  At  intervals,  a 
chisel,  with  its  cutting  edge  blunted  from  continual  ham- 
mering at  the  iron-like  mass,  was  taken  out,  thrown  on  one 
side,  and  another  inserted  in  its  place,  to  continue  the 
attack  on  the  rock.  Progress  was  laboriously  slow,  or  com- 
paratively rapid,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  material 
encountered.  When  the  rock  was  of  a  granitic  nature, 
then  advance  was  only  at  the  rate  of  an  inch  or  two  per 
hour;  on  the  other  hand,  when  soft,  clayey  material  was 
tapped,  then  the  chisels  bored  their  way  at  the  rate  of  as 
many  feet  in  the  same  time. 


THE   COMPRESSED   AIR   LOCOMOTIVE   WHICH    HAULED   WORKMEN    AND 

ROCK   BLASTED    FROM    THE    MOUNTAIN    IN   THE    CUTTING 

OF    THE    LOETSCHBERG   TUNNEL 


WHAT    THE   WORKING   FACE    IN    THE    HEART   OF   THE    MOUNTAIN    IS   LIKE 

The  gang  and  drills   cutting   the   path  for   the  line  through  the  Loetschberg 
Tunnel  recently  completed. 

BORING  A   GREAT   ALPINE   TUNNEL 


Phttc  by  £.  Goetz,  Lucerne} 

THE    LOFTY   AMSTEG    BRIDGE,   184    FEET    HIGH,  SPANNING   THE 
MADERAN   VALLEY   ON    THE   ST.   GOTTHARD    RAILWAY 


THE  BORING  OF  THE  GOTTHARD  TUNNEL      37 

Three  men  attended  to  each  machine,  and  by  means  of 
levers  and  wheels  the  height  of  a  drill  could  be  adjusted 
to  a  nicety.  Movement  was  difficult,  for  the  space  was 
cramped.  In  the  murky  gloom  the  outlines  of  the  men 
could  be  faintly  discerned.  The  fitful  glimmer  of  the  oil- 
lamp  which  each  carried — electric  lighting  had  still  to  be 
invented — fell  upon  their  semi-nude  bodies  and  swarthy 
faces.  The  streaming  perspiration  mingling  with  the 
grime  and  dust,  which  strayed  over  their  skin  in  fantastic 
streaks,  gave  the  men  a  fiendish  appearance.  The  tem- 
perature was  that  of  an  oven.  As  the  men  drew  nearer 
and  nearer  to  the  heart  of  old  Gotthard,  the  heat  rose  until 
the  men  laboured  in  an  atmosphere  of  90°  or  more.  The 
only  sounds  were  those  of  the  hammering  of  the  drills  as 
they  bored  into  the  rock,  and  the  hissing  of  the  escaping 
air  after  it  had  completed  its  allotted  task  in  operating  the 
chisels. 

At  long  intervals  there  came  a  heavy  silence.  The  holes 
had  been  bored  to  the  requisite  depth.  The  machine  was 
drawn  far  back  into  the  boring.  Explosives  were  slipped 
into  the  holes  and  tamped  home.  From  a  safe  distance  the 
charges  were  fired.  A  dull,  smothered  roar,  a  rending  and 
crumbling,  and  another  gap  was  torn  in  the  bowels  of  this 
monarch  of  the  Alps.  The  excavators  hurried  forward, 
cleared  away  the  tumbled  debris,  and  brought  the  lumbering 
drill  carriage  up  to  the  fresh  working  surface. 

Day  in  and  day  out,  week  after  week,  month  by  month, 
this  round  continued.  It  was  monotonous,  and  the  work 
was  hard.  The  Stirling  atmosphere  and  the  conditions  told 
severely  on  the  physique  of  the  workmen.  Congestion  of 
the  brain,  irregular  action  of  the  heart,  anaemia,  or  one  of 
numerous  other  obscure  maladies,  was  the  reward  for  their 
labour.  Their  faces  assumed  a  deathly  pallor;  working  in 
cramped  positions  gave  them  an  unsightly  stoop,  and 
deprived  their  legs  of  movement,  so  they  tottered  rather 
than  walked  as  they  returned  from  the  scene  of  their  toil 
at  the  end  of  the  shift. 

The  pay  was  wretched,    ranging   from   half-a-crown   to 


38      RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF    THE    WORLD 

five  shillings  (from  60  to  125  cents)  per  day  of  eight  hours, 
out  of  which  they  had  to  board  themselves  !  Needless  to 
say,  but  few  Englishmen  or  western  Europeans  figured 
on  the  pay-roll,  for  none  would  accept  such  starvation  pay 
for  such  terrible  work.  The  labourers  were  Italians  for 
the  most  part,  and  yet  nearly  one  and  all,  by  subsisting  on 
miserable  food,  consisting  for  the  most  part  of  a  kind  of 
meal  porridge,  cheap  and  yet  limited  in  quantity,  saved 
a  part  of  their  earnings  and  sent  it  home  to  their  needy 
families  in  sunny  Italy.  The  average  number  of  men 
employed  was  about  4000,  half  at  either  end,  but  at  times 
it  ran  up  to  as  high  as  7000.  The  mountain  claimed  310 
lives,  killed  by  accident  alone,  and  877  injured,  before  it 
was  conquered;  but,  considering  the  conditions,  it  is 
remarkable  that  the  casualty  roll  was  not  heavier. 

In  the  wake  of  the  small  heading  gallery  came  the  other 
gangs.  These  rigged  up  the  timber  and  other  supports 
to  the  roof  and  excavated  the  small  opening  to  the  full 
dimensions  of  the  tunnel.  Last  of  all  came  the  masons, 
setting  the  masonry  lining,  from  18  to  30  inches  thick, 
in  position,  for  the  tunnel  is  lined  throughout.  In  passing 
through  the  granite  rock  there  was  but  little  fear  of  a 
collapse  of  the  roof,  but  in  the  treacherous  clay  advance 
had  to  be  made  warily,  and  heavy  timbering  resorted  to, 
in  order  to  prevent  the  soft  soil  caving  in  and  burying  all 
in  its  sticky  embrace. 

The  material  for  the  headings  and  lining,  as  well  as  the 
workmen  and  tools,  were  carried  to  and  fro  upon  a  small 
railway,  the  locomotives  of  which  were  driven  by  com- 
pressed air — steam  was  impracticable,  because  it  would  have 
fouled  the  workings;  while  on  the  short  distance  between 
the  inner  end  of  the  railway  and  the  working  face  haulage 
was  done  by  horses.  The  privations  suffered  by  the 
navvies  was  only  equalled  by  those  experienced  by  the 
animals,  the  mortality  of  which  ran  up  to  as  high  as 
twenty-five  per  cent,  of  the  number  employed. 

Water  was  a  constant  menace,  and  at  times  retarded 
progress  seriously.  On  the  south  side  it  was  particularly 


THE   BORING  OF  THE  GOTTHARD  TUNNEL     39 

troublesome.  Time  after  time  the  drills  or  detonating 
charges  would  tap  one  of  these  subterranean  streams, 
and  the  water  would  pour  out  in  a  cascade.  These  rivulets 
were  of  varying  volume,  but  in  one  stretch,  where  the  rock 
was  extremely  friable,  it  was  considered  too  dangerous  to 
use  the  mechanical  drilling  machine,  so  the  men  had  to 
cut  their  way  forward  by  hand.  In  so  doing  they  released 
a  vast  underground  pocket  of  water,  which  rushed  out  at 
the  rate  of  over  3000  gallons  per  minute.  At  one  spot  it 
was  only  by  superhuman  effort  that  headway  was  made, 
for  the  men  were  half  submerged  in  these  torrential  out- 
bursts, escape  from  which  was  only  possible  by  penetrating 
farther  into  the  mountain. 

In  1876  another  terrible  calamity  overtook  Louis  Favre. 
It  was  discovered  suddenly  that  the  railway,  far  from 
costing  the  estimated  sum,  would  approximate  over 
^11,500,000,  or  $57,500,000.  Somebody  had  blundered, 
and  badly  too.  A  deficit  of  over  ,£4,000,000,  or  $20,000,000, 
appeared  certain.  What  was  to  be  done?  The  develop- 
ment of  such  a  contingency  never  could  have  happened  at 
a  more  inopportune  moment.  Times  were  hard ;  money 
was  scarce;  financial  crashes  loomed  in  every  quarter  of  the 
Continent;  and,  to  make  matters  worse,  war  was  raging. 
Never  in  the  history  of  engineering  had  such  an  extra- 
ordinary and  unaccountable  mistake  been  made  in  the 
estimates. 

The  discovery  came  as  a  thunderclap.  The  stock  of  the 
company  ran  down  like  a  thermometer  plunged  into  ice. 
Those  who  had  supported  the  enterprise  in  the  face  of 
hostile  criticism  began  to  doubt  the  wisdom  of  their 
optimism.  A  gloom  settled  everywhere.  It  appeared  as 
if  the  gigantic  achievement  would  become  numbered  among 
the  great  unpaid ;  would  be  another  contribution  to  those 
unfinished  enterprises  characterised  as  follies. 

But  Monsieur  Favre  kept  going.  There  was  the  daily 
penalty  staring  him  in  the  face  if  he  did  not  finish  within 
time.  Any  prolonged  delay  spelled  ruin  to  him  and  to 
those  who  had  financed  his  task.  To  make  matters  worse, 


40      RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF    THE    WORLD 

the  Swiss  departments  who  had  the  most  to  gain  from  the 
completion  of  the  railway  steadfastly  refused  to  extend  the 
slightest  assistance. 

Matters  reached  a  crisis.  Either  the  money  must  be 
found,  or  that  already  spent  must  lie  buried  in  the  moun- 
tain. An  International  Conference  was  called  to  consider 
the  situation,  where,  as  prominent  cities  and  railways  who 
hoped  to  reap  something  from  the  completion  of  the  tunnel 
promised  support,  Germany,  Switzerland  and  Italy  agreed 
to  increase  their  subventions.  Much  of  the  projected  work 
originally  contemplated  was  postponed  indefinitely  in  order 
to  reduce  the  first  cost. 

This  readjustment  of  the  financial  situation  enabled  work 
to  be  resumed  energetically.  But  Favre  was  harassed 
sorely  still.  Payments  for  work  became  irregular,  and 
every  possible  obstacle  that  could  be  placed  in  his  way 
was  forced  to  the  front  by  intriguing  opponents.  Efforts 
were  made  even  to  create  a  rupture  between  him  and  the 
International  Society,  but  Favre's  unflagging  perseverance 
and  determination  resisted  all  such  machinations,  and  he 
plodded  along  resolutely. 

However,  these  worries  and  his  feverish  anxiety  to 
succeed  in  his  enterprise  told  upon  his  health.  He  never 
lived  to  see  his  great  achievement  completed.  On  July  19, 
1879,  while  inspecting  the  progress  of  the  work  at  the 
headings,  he  was  seized  with  an  apoplectic  fit,  to  which  he 
succumbed  in  a  few  hours.  Literally  in  harness,  this 
guiding  spirit  and  clever  engineer  passed  beyond  the  veil 
when  the  tunnel,  the  crowning  effort  of  his  life,  was  rapidly 
approaching  completion. 

His  mantle  fell  upon  his  right-hand  assistant,  M.  Hell- 
wag,  an  accomplished  German  engineer,  and  he  pushed 
forward  the  scheme  with  an  energy  characteristic  of  his  late 
chief.  But  friction  again  rose.  Swiss  engineers  were 
jealous  of  this  appointment,  and  at  last  in  sheer  disgust 
the  new  engineer-in-chief  threw  up  the  work.  He  was 
hounded  from  his  post,  despite  the  fact  that  on  another 
section  of  the  railway  he  had  overcome  ingeniously  the 


THE   BORING   OF  THE  GOTTHARD  TUNNEL     41 

negotiation  of  sharp  ascents  within  short  distances,  which 
otherwise  appeared  impossible,  by  the  invention  of  a  spiral 
tunnel,  wherein  the  railway  burrows  into  the  mountain 
side,  describes  therein  a  complete  circle,  and  emerges  again 
immediately  above  the  portal  by  which  it  entered. 

On  Saturday,  the  2yth  of  February,  1880,  while  the  work- 
men on  the  Goschenen  side  were  tearing  the  vitals  out  of 
the  peak,  they  were  surprised  to  find  large  masses  of  rock 
falling  about  their  ears  without  any  effort  on  their  part. 
They  stopped.  The  situation  seemed  uncanny.  They 
listened  intently,  and  then  heard  the  familiar  sound  of  a 
muffled  roar,  indicating  blasting  in  the  heading.  The 
workmen  on  the  Airolo  side  were  upon  them.  Terrified 
lest  the  next  concussion  might  bury  them  beneath  a  mass 
of  rock,  they  hurriedly  retreated  and  waited.  Presently 
one  espied  the  point  of  a  chisel  ploughing  through  the 
rock  towards  him.  He  grasped  its  extremity,  but  as 
quickly  dropped  it,  for  it  was  so  hot  that  it  burned  his  hand. 
Frantically  these  men  rapped  upon  the  last  remaining  wall 
of  rock  to  inform  their  comrades  on  the  other  side  that  they 
were  through.  With  lightning-like  rapidity  the  news 
flashed  through  the  Goschenen  workings  that  the  men  from 
the  Airolo  side  might  be  seen  at  any  minute,  and  that  the 
task  of  eight  weary  years  was  consummated  practically. 

As  quickly  the  news  flashed  from  Goschenen  to  the 
Airolo  portal  to  cease  work,  since  it  was  decided  that  the 
last  blast  tearing  away  the  final  thickness  of  rock  should 
be  the  occasion  of  great  jubilation.  The  whole  country  was 
excited.  Officials  hurried  to  the  scene,  and  the  countryside 
from  far  and  near  flocked  to  the  two  mouths  of  the  tunnel. 
There  was  no  sleep  for  any  one  in  the  constructional  camps 
that  Saturday  night.  The  men  were  in  a  perfect  state  of 
frenzy.  In  the  darkness  the  preparations  for  the  culminat- 
ing move  were  hurried  forward.  It  was  arranged  that  as 
the  men  on  the  Airolo  heading  had  first  pierced  the  last 
partition  of  rock,  they  should  have  the  honour  of  blow- 
ing the  gap  which  would  afford  access  from  one  side  of  the 
mountain  chain  to  the  other  through  its  base. 


42      RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF    THE    WORLD 

At  seven  o'clock  on  the  Sunday  morning  a  train  started 
from  each  end  laden  with  invited  guests  to  witness  the  final 
operation.  Amid  many  huzzas  they  disappeared  into  the 
dark,  yawning  mouths  of  the  great  bore.  When  each  party 
reached  the  heading  the  machines  were  already  at  work. 
Only  a  foot  of  rock  stood  between  those  who  had  journeyed 
up  from  Airolo  and  the  others  who  had  travelled  from 
Goschenen.  The  distinction  of  making  the  breach  a  thou- 
sand feet  under  the  village  of  Andermatt  nestling  in  the 
sunshine  on  the  mountain  slopes,  and  with  the  little  lake 
of  Sella  3000  feet  above  one's  head,  was  given  to  two  Pied- 
montese  workmen,  Neccaraviglia  and  Chisso,  who  had 
toiled  in  the  Cenis,  and  afterwards  in  the  Gotthard,  since  its 
very  commencement.  The  last  charges  were  rammed  home, 
and  at  11.45  on  the  Sunday  morning  eight  rumbling  de- 
tonations heralded  the  piercing  of  St.  Gotthard.  Ere  the 
smoke  had  cleared  away  the  men  sprang  forward.  There 
was  the  final  breach,  about  three  feet  in  diameter.  Engineer 
Bossi  sprang  through  the  gap,  and  emotionally  embraced 
his  confrere  on  the  other  side,  followed  by  his  workmen, 
who  shook  hands  with  their  comrades.  It  was  a  strange 
scene  in  the  depths  of  the  Alps,  and  the  wild  vivas  of  those 
assembled,  to  the  memory  of  Louis  Favre,  reverberated 
weirdly  down  the  shaft  on  either  side. 

The  excavations  of  the  works  to  the  full  dimensions  and 
the  lining  up  of  the  last  section  proceeded  wuth  great 
rapidity,  and  on  May  22,  1882,  amid  great  festivity,  the 
tunnel  was  declared  open.  It  had  taken  ten  years  to  com- 
plete, but  had  Favre  been  left  to  his  own  devices,  and  had  he 
not  been  exposed  to  financial  harassing  and  intrigue,  and 
had  not  his  successor  Hellwag  been  driven  from  his  post, 
it  would  have  been  finished  in  the  time  the  engineer  con- 
templated. At  that  time  Favre's  skill,  pluck  and  un- 
flagging devotion  to  his  task  were  not  appreciated,  but 
recognition  of  his  genius  was  afterwards  extended  by  the 
erection  of  a  monument  to  his  memory  at  the  Airolo 
entrance  to  the  tunnel.  It  is  safe  to  assert  that  it  was  due 
to  his  enterprise  and  grim  determination  in  the  face  of 


THE  BORING  OF  THE   GOTTHARD   TUNNEL    43 

adversity  that  the  St.  Gotthard  tunnel  became  an  accom- 
plished fact,  and  resulted  in  the  reduction  of  the  journey 
between  Northern  Europe  and  Italy  by  thirty-six  hours. 

In  addition  to  the  tunnel,  172  miles  of  line  had  to  be 
built  to  connect  the  Swiss  with  the  Italian  railway  systems. 
From  the  body  of  this  frowning  clump  31,800,000  cubic 
feet  of  rock  were  torn  by  means  of  2,200,000  pounds  of 
dynamite. 

The  remaining  sections  of  the  railway  named  after  the 
tunnel  abound  in  interesting  features  from  the  technical 
point  of  view,  the  most  notable,  possibly,  being  the  re- 
markable spiral  tunnels  to  which  reference  has  been  made, 
and  the  successful  application  of  which  in  this  instance  has 
been  reproduced  upon  other  railways  where  similar  con- 
ditions prevail.  The  best  examples,  possibly,  are  those  by 
which  the  Biaschina  gorge  is  negotiated,  since  here  there 
are  two  of  these  tunnels  side  by  side,  the  railway  almost 
describing  a  figure  8  in  corkscrewing  from  one  level  to  the 
other.  Exclusive  of  the  Gotthard,  there  are  no  less  than 
76  tunnels  and  galleries,  aggregating  29  miles,  as  well  as 
1,384  other  structures,  324  being  bridges  and  viaducts  over 
39  feet  in  length.  In  one  stretch  of  7  miles,  in  skirting 
the  south-eastern  arm  of  the  Lake  of  Lucerne,  the  railway 
passes  through  9  tunnels,  ranging  from  a  mere  85-feet 
burrow  to  others  6,512  feet  in  length.  Among  the  Gott- 
hard fastnesses  the  railway  work  becomes  bolder,  the 
bridges  are  lofty,  while  the  line  zigzags  in  a  remarkable 
manner.  It  is  a  case  of  tunnel,  cut  and  bridge  all  the  way. 
Up  to  1880,  when  the  railway  was  finished  practically, 
constructional  work  provided  regular  employment  for 
10,757  men. 

So  rapidly  did  the  volume  of  traffic  upon  the  railway 
swell,  however,  that  it  became  extremely  difficult  to  handle 
it,  as  there  was  only  a  single  line,  except  in  the  tunnel  and 
at  one  or  two  other  points.  The  provision  of  another  track 
became  imperative,  and  in  1886  it  was  commenced.  This 
was  not  a  simple  matter,  as  the  new  work  had  to  be  carried 
out  without  interrupting  traffic  in  any  way — that  is,  so  far 


44      RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF    THE    WORLD 

as  the  main  through  service  was  concerned.  With  the 
exception  of  the  Gotthard  and  four  smaller  tunnels,  all  the 
other  structures  had  to  be  excavated  out  to  carry  the  second 
pair  of  metals,  while,  similarly,  all  bridges  had  to  be 
increased  in  width.  In  order  to  finish  the  work  as  rapidly 
as  possible,  the  task  was  divided  up  into  a  number  of  small, 
separate  contracts,  each  covering  a  few  miles.  Vehicles 
for  the  conveyance  of  constructional  material  were  pro- 
vided and  supplies  were  hauled  free  of  charge  by  the 
railway,  while  explosives  for  blasting  were  sold  at  cost 
price. 

The  most  difficult  works  were  carried  out  by  the  company 
itself  by  its  own  engineers  and  labour.  In  this  compre- 
hensive widening  system  over  100,000  cubic  yards  of  rock 
which  had  been  excavated  from  the  St.  Gotthard  and 
dumped  in  the  vicinity  of  Airolo  were  reclaimed,  to  be  used 
in  the  building  of  embankments,  revetments  and  retaining 
walls.  The  tunnel  widening  was  carried  out  almost  ex- 
clusively at  night  and  on  Sundays,  since  the  smoke  from 
passing  trains  would  have  impeded  such  work  during  the 
day.  The  quickest  methods  of  widening  were  adopted, 
and  in  the  approach  to  the  Bristen  tunnel  an  excellent 
expression  of  this  is  afforded.  Instead  of  trimming  back 
the  mountain-side  to  provide  space  for  the  second  pair  of 
rails,  a  gallery  was  built  projecting  from  the  mountain  and 
supported  on  heavy  masonry  pillars,  giving  the  appearance 
of  a  colonnade. 

In  the  handling  of  unavoidable  night  trains  an  elaborate 
protection  system  was  adopted  in  connection  with  the 
tunnels,  to  prevent  disaster  to  the  trains  themselves  or  to 
the  working  gangs.  No  trains  were  permitted  to  enter  a 
tunnel  until  assurance  had  been  made  doubly  sure  that 
there  was  no  constructional  train  standing  on  the  only  line 
to  court  collision,  and  that  the  workmen  were  safe.  Each 
working  squad  was  covered  amply  by  electric  and  other 
signalling  devices.  Similarly,  all  metallic  structures  that 
required  moving  were  handled  on  Sundays,  when  traffic 
was  at  its  lowest  ebb,  between  the  scheduled  movements 


THE  BORING  OF  THE  GOTTHARD  TUNNEL      45 

of  passing  trains,  so  that  the  latter  might  not  be  delayed. 
It  was  estimated  that  this  work  would  occupy  nine  years, 
but  in  reality  it  was  accomplished  in  five  and  a  half  years, 
and  the  total  cost  of  widening  the  whole  mileage  to  a  double 
line  was  only  ^500,000,  or  $2,500,000. 


CHAPTER   IV 

THE  RAILWAY   INVASION   OF   CANADA 

THE  news  of  the  victory  of  Stephenson's  "Rocket"  in 
the  historic  railway  locomotive  contest  at  Rainhill  on  the 
Liverpool  &  Manchester  railway  in  1829  scarcely  had 
filtered  round  the  world,  when  the  idea  of  transporting 
passengers  and  merchandise  by  steam  power  along  two 
parallel  rails  occupied  the  earnest  attention  of  enterprising 
spirits  in  Canada.  They  realised  that  the  new  method  of 
locomotion  was  certain  to  play  an  important  part  in  the 
opening  up  of  British  North  America.  As  a  result  of 
deliberations,  a  small  body  of  prominent  business  men 
in  Montreal  applied  for  a  charter  to  construct  a  railway 
from  La  Prairie  to  St.  John's  in  the  province  of  Quebec, 
which  was  granted  in  1832  under  the  seal  of  William  IV. 

It  was  an  unpretentious  enterprise,  for  the  projected  line 
was  only  some  fourteen  miles  in  length.  It  was  named 
the  Champlain  &  St.  Lawrence  railway,  the  idea  being  to 
link  Lake  Champlain,  whence  New  York  could  be  reached 
by  water,  with  the  St.  Lawrence.  The  first  section  of  the 
line  was  opened  in  1836,  though  it  was  not  operated  by 
steam.  The  rails  were  of  wood,  and  the  vehicles  were 
hauled  by  horses.  This  system  obtained  for  only  one  year, 
however.  The  first  winter  sufficed  to  demonstrate  to  those 
concerned  with  the  enterprise  that  such  primitive  methods 
were  far  from  satisfactory.  Consequently  the  "wooden 
flanges,"  as  the  rails  constituting  the  track  were  called, 
were  torn  up  to  make  way  for  iron  rails,  and  the  steam- 
engine  took  the  place  of  the  animal  motor. 

A  year  or  two  later  the  objective  of  the  promoters  was 
attained.  Lake  Champlain  was  brought  into  communica- 
tion with  the  St.  Lawrence  at  Montreal  by  a  railway  some 

46 


THE   RAILWAY   INVASION   OF   CANADA      47 

ifty  miles  in  length,  the  inland  sheet  of  water  being 
apped  at  Rouses's  Point  at  the  head  of  the  lake  in  United 
States  territory.  It  is  stated  that  Jay  Gould,  who  after- 
vards  became  one  of  the  greatest  railway-builders  and 
nagnates  in  the  United  States,  gained  his  first  insight  of 
he  construction  of  railways  upon  this  line,  by  being  asso- 
:iated  with  the  location  survey.  From  this  humble  begin- 
ling  was  woven  the  huge  railway  network  of  Canada, 
vhich  now  gridirons  the  country  in  all  directions,  and 
tggregates  some  25,000  miles. 

Other  projects  were  formulated  in  rapid  succession  for 
i  comprehensive  invasion  of  the  eastern  corner  of  the 
:ountry.  Foremost  among  these  was  the  Grand  Trunk 
Railway  Company,  conceived  in  1852,  to  build  a  trunk 
•oad  between  the  Atlantic  seaboard  and  the  Great  Lakes, 
vhich  at  that  time  was  practically  the  western  commercial 
imit  of  the  Dominion.  It  was  an  English  enterprise,  and, 
noreover,  was  strongly  imperial  from  the  sentimental  point 
)f  view,  for  it  was  planned  to  thread  Canadian  territory 
entirely. 

The  famous  firm  of  railway  constructional  engineers, 
Messrs.  Peto,  Betts  &  Brassey,  fresh  from  their  triumphs 
Dn  the  Continent,  were  willing  to  carry  out  the  work.  They 
lad  an  extensive  accumulation  of  plant  lying  idle,  and  at 
the  time  were  seeking  for  fresh  worlds  to  conquer.  Canada 
presented  just  the  opportunity  they  desired,  and  they  were 
ready  to  provide  all  the  railways  that  Canada  would  require 
for  some  years  to  come.  The  faith  in  this  firm  of  con- 
structional engineers  was  so  great  that  British  financiers 
were  open  to  provide  any  amount  of  money  that  might  be 
required. 

The  negotiations  were  prolonged,  as  rival  interests 
opposed  the  scheme  vehemently.  The  preliminaries  passed 
through  many  vicissitudes,  but  the  compact  between  the 
English  financiers  and  the  Canadian  authorities  was 
ratified  and  sealed,  at  last,  for  the  construction  of  a  main 
line  between  Montreal  and  Hamilton,  a  distance  of  about 
373  miles,  which  the  Provincial  Government  undertook  to 


48      RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

finance  to  the  extent  of  ^3,000,  or  $15,000,  per  mile. 
Hamilton  was  selected  as  the  western  terminal  point 
because  therefrom  another  line  extended  to  the  Lakes,  while 
a  railway  was  creeping  up  from  Portland  on  the  Atlantic 
coast  to  Montreal.  By  the  construction  of  this  central 
section,  964  miles  of  through  continuous  railway  would  be 
provided  for  the  benefit  of  the  population. 

But  the  undertaking  proved  to  be  one  of  the  most  difficult 
that  the  engineers,  despite  their  wide  and  varied  experience, 
had  been  called  upon  to  fulfil  up  to  this  time.  The  country 
traversed  was  very  sparsely  populated,  the  forests  were 
dense,  and  in  winter,  under  the  combined  adversities  oi 
snow,  ice,  and  intense  cold,  the  situation  was  terrible. 
Labour  was  scarce,  wages  were  high,  and  material  was 
found  to  be  expensive.  In  the  end  it  was  found  that  the 
average  cost  per  mile  approximated  ,£8,000,  or  $40,000,  sc 
that  to  link  Montreal  with  Toronto  entailed  an  expenditure 
of  ,£2,664,000,  or  $13,320,000.  Moreover,  it  was  one  oi 
the  largest  contracts  that  the  engineers  ever  had  carried 
out,  while  the  physical  conditions  harassed  them  to  such 
an  extent  that  when  they  balanced  up  their  books  they 
found  they  had  incurred  a  loss  of  about  ,£1,000,000,  oi 
$5,000,000.  The  wide  gauge  of  five  feet  six  inches  was 
adopted,  and  this  factor  developed  into  as  keen  a  bone  oi 
dissension  in  Canada  as  it  did  in  Great  Britain,  and  as  in 
the  latter  country  it  was  finally  abolished,  so  in  Canada  i1 
was  abandoned  in  favour  of  the  standard  gauge  of  four  feel 
eight  and  a  half  inches,  though  the  conversion  cost  the 
Grand  Trunk  railway  a  matter  of  ;£  1,000,000  ($5,000,000) 

Yet  in  building  this  line  the  contractors  set  up  an 
engineering  monument  which  for  years  ranked  as  the 
"eighth  wonder  of  the  world."  Montreal  was  on  the  north 
bank  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  while  the  link  connecting  the 
metropolis  with  the  Atlantic  seaboard  followed  the  southern 
bank  of  the  river.  The  two  sections  of  line  were  inter- 
rupted by  the  rolling  waterway,  which  at  this  poir  is 
nearly  two  miles  wide.  The  spanning  of  this  gap,  so  aj  tc 
bring  Montreal  into  direct  railway  touch  with  the  coast, 


NO.    2,    "THE    TORONTO,"    THE    FIRST    RAILWAY    ENGINE    BUILT    IN 
CANADA   BY   JAMES    GOOD    IN    1853 


Photo  by  courtesy  of  Pennsylvania  Steel  Lo.\ 

THE    NIAGARA   CANTILEVER    RAILWAY   BRIDGE    UNDER    CONSTRUCTION 

It  was  built  round  the  suspension  highway  bridge  so  as   not  to  interrupt 
communication  between  the  two  banks. 


ii 


Q    - 
O    o 

£   "-i 


W      0!   « 

§  -1 

O    ^f2 


2  Mj 

W  _o/ 

W  "« 

ffi  V 

h  ^ 

"  Si 
\o" 


THE    RAILWAY   INVASION    OF   CANADA       49 

had  been  one  of  the  great  obstacles  to  the  incorporation 
of  the  railway  in  the  first  instance,  but  Messrs.  Peto,  Betts 
&  Brassey  undertook  to  forge  this  link.  At  that  time  it  was 
so  formidable  an  undertaking  as  to  be  thought  absolutely 
incapable  of  realisation.  Indeed,  when  a  suggestion  for 
bridging  the  St.  Lawrence  at  this  point  was  advanced  for 
the  first  time,  it  was  laughed  to  scorn. 

However,  its  construction  constituted  a  vital  part  of  the 
contract.  Accordingly,  the  contractors  lost  no  time  in 
attacking  the  undertaking  when  they  secured  a  foothold  in 
the  Dominion.  The  river  was  surveyed  minutely  up  and 
down  for  a  considerable  distance,  while  detailed  soundings 
were  made  to  discover  the  extent  and  nature  of  the  founda- 
tions requisite  for  the  piers.  After  infinite  labour  a  suitable 
site  was  discovered,  and  a  great  measure  of  credit  for  the 
location  is  due  to  Alexander  M.  Ross,  who  was  one  of  the 
engineers  to  the  undertaking,  George  Stephenson  acting 
as  consulting  engineer.  Ross  carried  carefully  prepared 
and  detailed  plans  of  the  structure  he  had  formulated  to 
his  coadjutator  in  England,  and  Stephenson  admitted, 
when  first  submitted  to  his  notice,  that  "the  idea  was 
certainly  startling."  However,  he  complimented  Ross 
upon  his  daring,  and  as  the  latter  engineer  had  won  his 
spurs  in  England  before  he  departed  to  Canada  on  behalf 
of  the  group  of  capitalists  financing  the  Grand  Trunk 
railway,  his  work  received  greater  consideration  from  the 
eminent  engineer  than  might  have  been  the  case  otherwise. 
The  result  was  that  when  Stephenson  went  to  Canada  to 
consider  the  subject  on  the  spot  he  concurred  with  Ross 
in  the  general  scheme^  and  the  design  was  elaborated 
conjointly. 

When  the  location  was  settled  definitely,  the  project  was 
assailed  vigorously  by  bridge  designers  in  America,  but 
this  animosity  was  inflamed  from  the  fact  that  they  had 
prepared  alternative  proposals  for  bridging  the  waterway 
at  a  different  spot.  The  rival  engineers  emphasised  the 
danger  from  ice,  and  commented  strongly  upon  the  risk, 
in  fact  serious  danger,  arising  from  this  cause,  to  the  full 


50     RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

brunt  of  which  Stephenson's  bridge  would  be  submitted. 
Some  critics  even  went  so  far  as  to  state  that  the  structure 
never  would  be  completed,  or  if  so,  would  come  down 
under  the  first  packing  of  the  ice.  Stephenson,  however, 
treated  his  American  detractors  with  contempt,  and,  to  the 
mind  of  the  latter  worthies,  appeared  to  fly  deliberately  in 
the  face  of  Fate  by  concurring  with  Ross's  recommenda- 
tions. That  was  nearly  sixty  years  ago,  but  the  piers  have 
given  no  sign  of  collapsing  yet. 

The  resident  engineer  and  superintendent  of  the  con- 
structional work,  Mr.  James  Hodges,  realising  the  monu- 
mental character  of  the  undertaking — for  it  was  a  larger 
bridge-building  scheme  than  ever  had  been  attempted  up 
to  this  time— spent  many  hours  together  wrestling  with 
difficulties  as  they  developed,  for  the  unexpected  con- 
fronted them  at  every  turn.  The  ice  was  one  of  their 
greatest  perplexities,  because  during  the  winter  the  river 
is  frozen  so  solidly  that  it  will  support  the  weight  of  a 
train,  and,  indeed,  a  track  has  been  laid  across  the  water- 
way in  winter  to  maintain  communication  between  the  two 
banks.  When  the  ice  broke  up,  the  floes  became  jammed 
and  piled  against  the  temporary  works  around  the  piers  in 
an  inextricable  mass  to  such  an  extent  that  it  demanded 
unremitting  vigilance  to  guard  against  a  collapse  of  the 
dams  under  the  enormous  pressure  exerted  upon  them. 

The  depth  of  the  river  and  the  current  were  two  other 
factors  which  had  to  be  taken  into  serious  consideration, 
for  some  of  the  piers  are  sunk  in  twenty-two  feet  of  water, 
while  the  velocity  of  the  current  is  about  seven  miles  an 
hour.  The  working  season  was  very  short,  averaging 
about  twenty-six  weeks  during  the  year,  and  during  this 
period  every  available  man  had  to  be  crowded  on  to  the 
work.  When  construction  was  in  full  swing,  between 
2000  and  3000  men  found  employment. 

The  bridge  consisted  of  a  huge  rectangular  tube, 
similar  to  that  spanning  the  Menai  Straits,  carrying  a 
single  track.  From  end  to  end  it  measured  6,592  feet  by 
16  feet  wide,  18  feet  in  height,  and  weighed  9,044  tons.  It 


•; 


A   VIEW   OF   THE    IRON    TUBE,    2,290   FEET    IN    LENGTH    AND 
23    FEET    IN    DIAMETER 


THE    2000    H.P.    ELECTRIC    LOCOMOTIVES 
HAULING    THE    "INTERNATIONAL    LIMITED"   THROUGH    THE   TUBE 

The  "  link  that  binds  Two  Great  Nations,"  the  St.  Clair  Tunnel,  under  the  St.  Clair  River. 


THE    RAILWAY   INVASION    OF   CANADA      51 

was  divided  into  25  spans,  24  of  which  were  of  242  feet 
each,  while  one  was  of  330  feet.  The  piers  were  built 
massively  in  masonry,  the  stone  being  obtained  from 
quarries  in  convenient  proximity.  The  ironwork  was  pre- 
pared in  England,  each  piece  being  marked  carefully  for 
its  position  in  the  structure.  The  bridge  had  a  gradual 
slope  upwards  from  either  bank  to  the  centre,  where  the 
height  from  the  bed  of  the  river  to  the  top  of  the  tube  was 
1 08  feet.  For  its  erection  2,250,000  feet  of  timber  were 
required  in  connection  with  the  temporary  work,  the  piers 
and  abutments  demanded  the  use  of  some  3,000,000  feet 
of  masonry,  and  2,500,000  rivets  were  used  to  secure  the 
component  parts  of  the  ironwork  together.  In  addition  to 
the  bridge  proper,  some  2,500  feet  of  approaches  on  either 
side  had  to  be  fashioned,  so  that  the  total  length  of  the 
work  was  9,144  feet.  The  contracted  price  for  the  structure 
was  ;£ i, 400,000,  or  $7,000,000,  but  it  was  completed  for 
;£ 1 00,000  ($500,000)  less.  Of  this  total  the  masonry  and 
temporary  work  absorbed  ^800,000,  or  $4,000,000,  and  the 
ironwork  ,£400,000  ($2,000,000). 

While  the  work  was  in  progress  the  railway  company 
found  increasing  traffic,  as  the  sections  of  completed  line 
were  opened,  so  emphasised  the  urgency  of  securing 
through  communication  across  the  river  that  the  contractors 
were  approached,  and  a  bonus  of  ^60,000  ($300,000)  was 
offered  to  them  if  they  would  complete  the  work  a  year 
earlier  than  was  stipulated  in  the  contract.  The  engineers 
redoubled  their  efforts,  and  on  December  17,  1859,  tne 
great  bridge  was  opened,  though  the  official  ceremony  took 
place  five  months  later,  when  King  Edward  VII,  then 
Prince  of  Wales,  opened  the  Victoria  Bridge,  as  it  was 
christened,  in  the  name  of  Queen  Victoria,  during  his  visit 
to  the  Dominion. 

Stephenson  died  before  his  great  work  was  completed. 
For  a  quarter  of  a  century  or  more  it  constituted  one  of  the 
sights  of  the  North  American  continent.  As  the  country 
became  more  settled  and  the  volume  of  traffic  flowing  to 
and  fro  across  the  river  increased,  the  railway  experienced 

E   2 


52      RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF    THE    WORLD 

a  very  great  difficulty  in  handling  it  over  a  single  line. 
At  last  the  inadequacy  reached  such  a  point  that  some 
improvement  was  imperative.  A  second  bridge  would  have 
been  too  costly,  and  after  considerable  reflection  it  was 
decided  to  replace  the  tubular  bridge  by  one  of  larger 
dimensions. 

A  minute  examination  of  the  existing  structure  was 
made,  and  it  speaks  volumes  for  the  work  of  Stephenson 
and  Ross,  as  well  as  of  the  contractors,  that  the  bridge 
appeared  as  sound  and  as  fit  for  another  century  or  more 
as  it  did  on  the  day  it  was  first  opened.  The  piers  had 
been  built  so  solidly  that  they  did  not  show  the  slightest 
trace  of  the  terrible  bufferings  and  pressure  to  which  they 
had  been  subjected  by  the  ice  during  some  fifty  winters. 

Consequently  it  was  decided  to  remove  the  tubular 
structure  and  to  erect  in  its  place  an  open  truss  bridge, 
66  feet  8  inches  wide,  carrying  a  double  track,  a  roadway 
for  an  electric  tram-line,  space  for  vehicular  traffic,  and  a 
pavement  for  pedestrians.  The  engineers  designing  the 
new  structure  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  striking 
stability  and  condition  of  the  masonry  piers  would  carry 
the  new  bridge  with  but  slight  alteration.  As  a  result  of 
this  conclusion  it  was  decided  to  erect  the  new  structure 
around  the  old  bridge,  cutting  away  the  latter  span  by 
span,  so  that  there  was  no  interruption  to  the  train  service. 

This  appeared  to  be  a  simple  expedient,  but  when  the 
engineers  commenced  operations  on  Stephenson's  handi- 
work they  found  that  it  was  built  of  far  tougher  material 
than  they  had  expected.  The  rivets  defied  withdrawal,  so 
excellently  had  they  been  driven  home,  and  one  of  the 
engineers  showed  me  one  of  these  securing  pieces,  which 
he  had  preserved  as  a  memento  of  British  handiwork  of 
some  seventy  years  ago.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  as  he  related, 
it  was  far  easier  to  build  the  new  structure  than  it  was  to 
destroy  the  old,  and  the  cutting  away  of  the  old  tubular 
bridge  span  by  span  was  found  to  be  an  exceedingly 
laborious  task. 

However,  it  was  achieved,  and  there  was  not  the  slightest 


THE   RAILWAY   INVASION   OF   CANADA       53 

interruption  in  the  traffic,  which  testifies  to  the  skill  and 
care  with  which  the  engineers  laid  their  plans.  Nor  was  it 
attended  by  any  untoward  incident,  though  what  might 
have  proved  a  terrible  accident  was  averted  very  narrowly 
during  reconstruction,  as  was  related  to  me  by  one  of  the 
engineers.  It  was  Sunday  morning,  and  they  were  rebuild- 
ing the  central  part  of  the  bridge.  Special  men  had  been 
stationed  at  each  approach  to  the  bridge,  and  elaborate 
instructions  had  been  drawn  up  for  controlling  the  passage 
of  trains  by  flag-signalling.  Sunday  was  selected  for  the 
most  difficult  portions  of  the  work,  as  on  that  day  the 
trains  were  few  and  far  between. 

On  this  Sunday  morning  the  work  had  advanced  so 
satisfactorily  that  the  old  tubular  span  had  been  removed, 
and  there  was  a  wide  gap  in  the  continuity  of  the  ironwork 
carrying  the  metals,  showing  the  murky  river  swinging 
along  at  a  merry  pace  below.  Everything  was  ready  for 
completing  the  new  span,  when  one  of  the  engineers, 
happening  to  glance  shorewards,  observed  a  train  entering 
the  bridge  and  coming  along  at  a  brisk  speed.  Something 
had  gone  wrong ;  the  flagman  had  misunderstood  instruc- 
tions or  had  given  a  wrong  signal.  The  train  was  speed- 
ing to  its  doom,  for  there  was  the  yawning  gulf.  But  the 
engineer  never  lost  his  presence  of  mind.  Realising  the 
situation,  he  threw  down  his  instruments,  and  ran  along 
the  track  towards  the  advancing  train  waving  his  arms 
frantically  and  yelling  like  one  bereft.  The  engine-driver, 
unlike  the  majority  of  his  ilk  on  an  American  railway, 
concluded  that  something  must  be  amiss,  and  applied  his 
brakes  sharply,  pulling  up  a  short  distance  from  the  brink 
of  the  abyss.  It  was  a  narrow  escape;  had  the  engineer 
hesitated  a  minute,  disaster  swift  and  sudden  would  have 
overwhelmed  that  train. 

When  the  new  bridge,  with  its  22,000  tons  of  steel,  was 
completed  for  traffic  it  was  renamed,  but  as  the  reconstruc- 
tion coincided  with  the  Jubilee  of  Queen  Victoria's  reign, 
the  revision  comprised  merely  the  perpetuation  of  that 
auspicious  event,  and  to-day  the  structure  is  known  as  the 


54      RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF    THE    WORLD 

Victoria  Jubilee  Bridge.  From  first  to  last  the  structure 
has  cost  ;£  i, 800,000  ($9,000,000),  of  which  reconstruction 
absorbed  about  ,£400,000  ($2,000,000). 

As  the  Grand  Trunk  increased  in  importance,  subsidiary 
and  tributary  railways  were  absorbed.  Nor  was  the  original 
idea  of  a  trunk  line  overlooked.  This  end  was  achieved  by 
pushing  towards  Chicago,  the  busy  centre  of  the  Middle 
States.  Continuity  of  rail  in  this  case,  however,  was  inter- 
rupted by  the  St.  Clair  River,  the  narrow  strait  which 
connects  Lakes  Huron  and  Ontario.  In  the  early  days 
communication  was  maintained  by  means  of  ferry-boats, 
which  handled  complete  trains,  but  as  the  river  is  extremely 
erratic,  with  strong  currents  varying  in  velocity  according 
to  the  direction  of  the  wind,  and  is  congested  with  ship- 
ping, the  ferry  service  possessed  many  shortcomings. 
When  the  strait  was  obstructed  with  floating  ice,  the 
situation  became  far  more  serious. 

Accordingly,  in  order  to  remove  these  disabilities,  a 
bold  solution  was  elaborated  in  the  form  of  a  tunnel 
beneath  the  waterway  connecting  Sarnia  on  the  Canadian 
with  Port  Huron  on  the  United  States  side  of  the  St.  Clair 
River.  It  certainly  was  an  audacious  remedy  for  a  per- 
plexing problem.  The  river  is  46  feet  deep  and  is  nearly 
half-a-mile  wide,  so  that  the  tunnel  had  to  be  planned  at 
a  great  depth.  However,  no  better  alternative  could  be 
offered,  for  a  bridge  was  quite  out  of  the  question,  so  in 
1886  the  St.  Clair  Tunnel  Company  was  formed  as  a  sub- 
sidiary undertaking  of  the  railway,  to  complete  a  sub- 
aqueous link  of  communication,  with  Mr.  Joseph  Hobson 
as  chief  engineer. 

As  the  topography  of  the  land  on  either  side  is  tolerably 
flat,  the  question  of  the  approaches  had  to  be  settled,  and 
a  heavy  grade  at  either  end  could  not  be  avoided.  Tech- 
nical difficulties  were  encountered  at  the  very  start.  A  trial 
shaft  was  sunk  on  the  Canadian  side  to  a  depth  of  98  feet, 
while  another  shaft  on  the  American  side  was  carried 
down  to  92  feet.  The  preliminary  shafts  were  ellip- 
tical in  shape,  measuring  4  feet  by  8  feet  in  diameters. 


THE    RAILWAY   INVASION   OF   CANADA       55 

When  the  requisite  depths  were  obtained,  galleries  were 
driven  at  right  angles  beneath  the  river.  These  efforts 
proving  satisfactory,  it  was  decided  to  build  the  complete 
tunnel  from  either  bank  from  shafts,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
Blackwall  tunnel.  The  shafts  were  each  23  feet  in  diameter, 
and  they  were  so  built  that  there  was  a  circular  ring,  the 
lower  face  of  which  carried  a  knife-edge  digging  into  the 
ground.  The  soil  was  excavated  from  beneath  this  knife- 
edge,  and  as  the  brick-wall  lining  of  the  shaft  was  built 
upon  the  upper  surface  of  the  knife-ring,  it  was  considered 
that  the  superimposed  weight  would  drive  the  knife  down- 
wards as  the  earth  beneath  was  removed. 

But  these  carefully-laid  schemes  and  anticipations  went 
astray.  Exasperating  failures  and  mishaps  occurred,  and 
at  last  the  engineer  changed  his  plans ;  the  shaft  method 
was  abandoned.  Instead,  he  decided  to  drive  the  tunnel 
from  either  end  through  the  approaches.  For  this  purpose 
the  plant  and  machinery  were  removed  inland  from  the 
shafts  for  a  distance  of  1,900  feet  on  the  Canadian,  and 
i, 800  feet  on  the  American  bank  respectively.  Two  huge 
cuttings  were  driven  downhill  until  the  tunnel  level  was 
gained,  when  the  burrow  beneath  the  river  was  commenced. 
The  tunnel  itself  consists  of  a  circular  iron  tube  or  pipe  of 
sufficient  diameter  to  carry  a  single  track.  It  is  19  feet 
10  inches  in  diameter,  is  built  up  of  cast-iron  rings,  and 
weighs  complete  56,000,000  pounds,  or  about  25,450  tons. 
Boring  was  effected  from  either  end  by  means  of  the 
hydraulic  shield,  and  in  less  than  three  years  the  task  was 
finished. 

The  length  of  tunnel  beneath  the  water  is  2,290  feet, 
while  that  under  dry  land  represents  another  3,748  feet, 
making  a  total  length  of  6,932  feet.  To  this  must  be  added 
5,580  feet  of  approaches,  which  brings  the  total  extent  of 
the  work  to  nearly  12,000  feet,  or  2j  miles.  It  cost 
^"540,000,  or  $2,700,000,  and  has  always  ranked  as  a 
noteworthy  achievement  in  this  particular  branch  of 
engineering. 

Owing  to  the  steepness  of  the  approaches  on  either  side 


56     RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

special  locomotives  had  to  be  built  to  handle  the  traffic 
through  this  artery.  They  were  powerful  creations  of  the 
railway  engine  designer,  and  when  they  appeared  were 
the  largest  steam  locomotives  in  the  world.  They  could 
haul  a  train  weighing  760  tons,  though  at  times  the  pace 
was  slow. 

But  traffic  between  the  United  States  and  Canada  in- 
creased by  leaps  and  bounds,  owing  to  the  provision  of 
this  tunnel,  with  the  result  that  in  a  very  few  years  the 
railway  authorities  found  that  the  tube  was  quite  over- 
taxed. A  solemn  conclave  was  held  as  to  the  best  ways 
and  means  of  meeting  this  development.  The  track  could 
not  be  doubled;  so  the  question  was  how  to  increase  the 
existing  hauling  capacity  of  a  single  engine.  Steam  could 
not  meet  the  question,  so  was  ruled  out  of  court.  Then  an 
engineer  suggested  electrification,  and  advanced  a  report 
to  show  how  the  weight  of  each  train  might  be  increased 
by  nearly  25  per  cent,  with  quicker  working,  and  conse- 
quently would  facilitate  the  passage  of  a  greater  number 
of  trains  in  a  given  time. 

This  engineer,  Mr.  Bion  Arnold,  was  authorised  to 
proceed  with  his  scheme  and  to  complete  his  plans  for  the 
electrification  of  the  tunnel.  He  did  so,  and  as  a  result  a 
specification  was  drawn  up  requiring  the  haulage  of  a  train 
weighing  1000  tons  over  the  2\  miles  in  15  minutes,  with 
a  maximum  speed  of  25  miles  and  a  minimum  speed  of 
10  miles  per  hour  respectively.  When  the  plans  were 
made  known  is  was  realised  that  the  project  comprised  the 
most  ambitious  electrical  undertaking  that  ever  had  been 
attempted  up  to  that  time  in  railway  operations,  especially 
as  it  was  insisted  that  the  electrical  system  should  be  of  a 
type  which  constituted  its  first  application  to  heavy  steam 
railway  working.  This  is  what  is  known  as  the  single- 
phase  alternating  current  system  with  overhead  conductor. 

The  invitation  for  tenders  was  awaited  with  keen  anticipa- 
tion throughout  the  world,  as  it  was  conceded  to  offer  a 
unique  opportunity  to  the  electrical  engineer.  Conse- 
quently keen  competition  was  evinced  to  secure  the  honour 
of  carrying  out  such  a  remarkable  undertaking.  The  con- 


THE   RAILWAY   INVASION   OF   CANADA       57 

tract  was  secured  by  the  Westinghouse  Electric  &  Manu- 
facturing Company,  and  was  carried  to  a  successful 
conclusion  at  a  cost  of  ;£  100,000  ($500,000).  The  loco- 
motives now  used  on  this  service  are  among  the  most 
powerful  in  the  world.  They  weigh  135  tons,  and  develop 
about  2000  horse-power,  which  enables  them  to  haul  a 
looo-ton  train  up  the  heavy  approach  grades  at  a  minimum 
speed  of  10  miles  per  hour.  Moreover,  since  electricity 
was  adopted,  the  tunnel  has  been  kept  free  from  the  dense 
clouds  of  smoke  and  steam  which  originally  converted  the 
tube  into  a  veritable  inferno,  and,  what  is  far  more  impor- 
tant from  the  railway  company's  point  of  view,  the  elec- 
trical system  is  able  to  meet  three  times  the  volume  of 
traffic  that  exists  to-day,  so  that  there  is  ample  provision 
for  the  future.  As  it  is,  the  2\  miles  of  line  beneath  the 
teeming  St.  Clair  River  is  the  heaviest  electrically  worked 
section  of  railway  in  the  world. 

Another  link  with  the  United  States,  however,  was 
incumbent  to  bring  the  manufacturing  centres  around 
Buffalo  into  closer  communication  with  the  Dominion. 
Yet  there  was  only  one  point  where  this  link  could  be 
provided — across  the  gorge  through  which  the  Niagara 
River,  after  tumbling  over  the  lofty  cliff,  seethes  and  boils 
on  its  way  to  Lake  Ontario.  A  suspension  bridge  met  the 
exigencies  of  highway  traffic  for  some  years,  but  here  again 
improvement  was  demanded.  Accordingly,  a  new  bridge 
was  planned,  and  this  constitutes  one  of  the  most  graceful 
structures  spanning  that  fearful  rift. 

The  old  bridge  fulfilled  its  services  faithfully  for  forty 
years,  and  when  demolished  was  found  to  be  possessed  of 
several  years  of  life.  The  new  bridge  is  a  splendid  work, 
and  its  close  proximity  to  the  Falls  offers  a  striking  com- 
parison between  the  handiwork  of  Nature  and  that  of  the 
engineer.  The  bridge  leaps  across  the  gorge  in  a  single 
span,  and  when  one  is  speeding  over  the  structure  in  the 
train,  one  is  at  an  elevation  of  226  feet  above  the  raging 
waters  below.  The  span  is  of  no  less  than  550  feet,  and 
the  ends  are  secured  to  massive  anchorages  sunk  into  the 
face  of  the  cliffs.  It  is  wrought  throughout  of  steel,  and 


58      RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

is  approached  from  either  side  over  a  single  truss  span 
115  feet  long,  giving  a  total  length  of  780  feet. 

But  the  bridge  serves  a  dual  purpose.  The  upper  level 
or  deck,  30  feet  in  width,  carries  two  tracks  for  the  railway's 
need,  but  below  this  is  another  deck,  57  feet  wide,  which 
has  a  central  carriage-way  flanked  on  either  hand  by  a 
broad  pavement,  so  that  the  bridge  provides  vehicular  and 
pedestrian  accommodation  between  the  opposite  banks. 
In  order  to  provide  this  improved  connection  between  the 
two  nations,  a  sum  of  about  ;£  100,000  ($500,000)  had  to  be 
expended.  The  improved  facilities  it  offered  so  appealed 
to  the  public  on  both  shores  that  they  celebrated  its  opening 
in  1897  by  a  three  days'  carnival. 

As  time  sped  by,  the  Grand  Trunk  railway  gradually 
but  surely  swallowed  its  competitors,  until  at  last  it  was 
left  in  undisputed  possession  of  the  Province  of  Ontario, 
from  the  railway  point  of  view.  To-day  it  has  over  8000 
miles  of  intricate  steel  ribbon  stretched  between  the  Great 
Lakes  and  the  Atlantic  coast,  while  between  Montreal  and 
Chicago  the  fastest  trains  in  the  Dominion  hurtle  to  and 
fro  over  a  double  track  840^  miles  in  length,  which  is 
the  longest  continuous  stretch  of  double  track  under  one 
management  in  the  world,  and  upon  which  some  exhilarat- 
ing speeds  are  attained. 

When  the  British  capitalists  committed  themselves  to  an 
expenditure  of  over  ,£9,000,000,  or  $45,000,000,  for  the 
construction  of  less  than  500  miles  of  line  through  virgin 
territory,  it  is  doubtful  whether  in  their  rosiest  dreams 
they  ever  anticipated  that  it  would  grow  into  a  huge 
organisation  aggregating  a  third  of  the  railway  mileage 
of  British  North  America  within  sixty  years. 

Development  is  still  being  maintained;  new  territories 
are  being  conquered.  A  new  long  and  sinuous  arm,  3,556 
miles  from  end  to  end,  is  being  stretched  out  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  to  bring  the  eastern  into 
direct  touch  with  the  western  seaboard.  The  whole  has 
grown  from  the  insignificant  little  wooden  road  that  was 
laid  between  La  Prairie  and  St.  John's  in  the  Province  of 
Quebec  eighty  years  ago. 


CHAPTER    V 

THE    FIRST   TRANS-CONTINENTAL    ACROSS    THE 
UNITED    STATES 

"THERE  were  difficulties  from  end  to  end  :  from  high  and 
steep  mountains;  from  snows;  from  deserts  where  there  was 
a  scarcity  of  water,  and  from  gorges  and  flats  where  there 
was  an  excess;  difficulties  from  cold  and  heat;  from  a 
scarcity  of  timber  and  from  obstructions  of  rock ;  difficulties 
in  keeping  a  large  force  on  a  long  line;  from  Indians;  and 
from  want  of  labour." 

This  was  the  terse  story  related  to  the  United  States 
Congress  by  Collis  P.  Huntington,  one  of  the  moving 
spirits  of  what,  at  that  time,  was  a  tremendous  undertaking 
— the  construction  of  the  first  railway  across  North  America 
whereby  the  Atlantic  was  linked  with  the  Pacific  by  a  bond 
of  steel.  But  that  concise  statement  concealed  one  of  the 
most  romantic  stories  in  the  history  of  railway  engineer- 
ing :  of  grim  battles  every  hour  either  against  the  hostile 
forces  of  nature  or  of  mankind. 

It  was  in  1863  that  the  first  sod  was  turned  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  first  line  which  was  destined  to  bring  San 
Francisco  within  120  hours'  journey  of  New  York,  and 
which  changed  completely  the  whole  stream  of  traffic  flow- 
ing round  one-half  of  the  northern  hemisphere.  But  for 
some  years  before  the  spade  was  driven  into  the  earth  to 
signal  the  commencement  of  this  enterprise,  the  idea  had 
been  contemplated  and  discussed  in  a  more  or  less  academic 
manner.  It  was  such  a  vast  scheme,  the  commercial  possi- 
bilities of  success  appeared  so  slender  that  the  most  daring 
financiers  of  that  day  shrank  from  fathering  it.  Capitalists  \ 
concluded  that  they  might  just  as  well  pour  their  money/ 
down  a  well  as  to  sink  it  in  such  a  project  as  this. 

59 


60      RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF    THE    WORLD 

The  public,  however,  regarded  the  idea  from  a  totally 
different  standpoint.  East  wanted  to  shake  hands  with  the 
west  over  the  mighty  mountains  and  vast  plains.  To  pass 
from  New  York  to  San  Francisco,  or  in  the  reverse  direc- 
tion, in  those  days  was  a  perilous  journey.  One  either  had 
to  make  a  protracted  and  dangerous  voyage  down  one  side 
of  the  American  continent,  round  Cape  Horn,  and  pass  up 
the  opposite  coast-line  for  some  10,000  miles;  to  brave  the 
peril  of  traversing  the  fever-ridden  Central  American  Isth- 
mus ;  or  to  embark  upon  an  overland  journey  of  some  3,000 
miles  through  country  where  long  stretches  of  parched, 
waterless  desert  gave  way  to  lofty,  snow-capped  mountains, 
with  the  Indians  in  open  warfare. 

When  California  seethed  in  the  famous  Gold  Rush,  and 
adventurers  flocked  to  this  magnetic  hub  from  all  parts  of 
the  world,  the  absence  of  a  connecting  link  was  experienced 
to  an  acute  degree.  The  gold-fever-stricken  pioneers  had 
to  gain  their  objective  as  best  they  could,  and  with  the  best 
means  of  locomotion  they  could  afford.  In  a  single  year 
100,000  gold-seekers  trailed  across  the  continent. 

The  traffic  produced  by  the  discovery  of  gold  set  Collis 
P.  Huntington  thinking.  Here  was  a  heavy  volume  of 
traffic  slipping  through  the  fingers.  Why  should  it  not  be 
handled  by  a  railway  ?  This  was  his  argument,  and  as  he 
was  a  dreamer  of  commercial  conquest,  though  not  in  an 
idle  manner,  he  decided  to  remedy  the  deficiency.  Looking 
into  the  future,  he  saw  that  a  line  not  only  would  meet  the 
immediate  demands  born  of  the  gold  rush,  but  that  it  would 
develop  into  a  great  highway  between  Europe  and  the 
East,  as  well  as  the  Antipodes.  He  discussed  the  idea  with 
kindred  spirits,  Leland  Stanford  and  Thomas  C.  Durant, 
and  they  became  enthused  with  the  project.  But  the  ques- 
tion was  how  to  obtain  the  money  requisite  for  construc- 
tion ?  To  appeal  to  the  public  was  useless,  and  no  assist- 
ance could  be  anticipated  from  the  financial  world.  So 
they  approached  the  Government,  and  their  endeavours 
proved  so  successful  that  the  country  decided  to  subsidise 
the  undertaking. 


THE    FIRST   TRANS-CONTINENTAL          61 

When  the  Government's  sympathy  had  been  secured  in 
a  practical  manner,  the  next  step  was  to  discover  an 
engineer  who  could  superintend  the  survey  and  conduct 
constructional  operations.  The  country  did  not  possess 
many  Stephensons,  and  the  work  in  contemplation  was  of 
such  an  unprecedented  character  that  no  ordinary  engineer 
would  prove  equal  to  the  task.  Happily,  however,  there 
was  in  San  Francisco  a  railway  engineering  genius  whose 
ability  was  being  wasted  for  lack  of  opportunity.  This 
man  was  Theodore  D.  Judah.  He  was  a  born  engineer, 
and  his  skill  in  railway  engineering  had  achieved  a  peculiar 
distinction  up  and  down  the  Pacific  coast.  This  work  was 
his  sole  hobby,  and  the  greater  the  difficulties  to  be  over-  -s 
come,  the  more  enthusiastically  and  determinedly  he  threw 
himself  into  the  task.  His  efforts  in  this  direction  were  so 
strenuous  that  he  was  regarded  generally  as  a  crank,  and 
his  great  dreams  of  railway  conquest  provided  a  continual 
source  of  amusement.  He  was  always  diving  into  the 
mountains,  reconnoitring  the  passes  with  a  view  to  their 
suitability  for  carrying  the  steel  'highway,  and  openly 
admitting  that  his  greatest  ambition  in  life  was  to  be  given 
the  chance  to  lift  the  metals  over  the  gaunt  Sierras  frown- 
ing upon  the  Pacific  coast,  and  to  drop  them  on  to  the 
plains  rolling  eastwards  from  the  opposite  slopes. 

On  one  occasion  he  resigned  his  position  upon  a  new 
railway  line  that  was  being  built  around  San  Francisco, 
and,  unaccompanied,  forced  his  way  through  the  rocky 
barrier,  making  a  mental  note  of  the  configuration  of  the 
country  as  he  proceeded  in  case  of  something  turning  up, 
laboured  across  Nevada's  dreary  wastes  of  alkali,  skirted 
Salt  Lake,  and  at  last  gained  the  Missouri.  As  a  result  of 
his  frequent  peregrinations  among  the  mountains,  his  eye 
became  trained  expertly  in  spying  out  the  suitability  of 
the  country  for  the  iron  road,  and  he  became  known  under 
the  sobriquet  of  "The  Railway  Pathfinder."  It  was  a 
picturesque  nickname,  but  it  was  one  which  described  his 
personality  to  the  full.  That  his  wanderings  \vere  not  in 
vain  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  nearly  every  pass  through 


62      RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF    THE    WORLD 

the  mountains  which  he  stated  to  be  adapted  to  carry  a 
railway  has  been  pressed  into  this  service  since,  in  order  to 
gain  the  Pacific  coast. 

Indeed  the  pioneer  trans-continental  railway  owes  its 
birth  to  Judah.  For  years  he  had  advocated  the  project, 
and  emphasised  its  practicability.  When  Himtington  and 
his  colleagues  were  ready  to  commence  operations  they  sent 
for  Judah,  convinced  that  he  was  the  very  man  for  whom 
they  were  searching,  to  plot  the  path  for  the  line  and  to  take 
command  of  the  forces  in  the  field.  The  Railway  Path- 
finder, realising  that  the  ambition  of  his  life  was  within 
reach  at  last,  hurried  eastwards.  There  was  a  short  con- 
sultation which  sufficed  to  prove  to  the  promoters  that 
Judah  was  the  man  to  carry  the  enterprise  to  success,  and 
there  and  then  he  was  placed  in  supreme  control  of  the  con- 
struction. The  difficulties  among  the  mountains  were  what 
the  promoters  feared  the  most,  but  the  pathfinder  regarded 
them  so  lightly  that  their  apprehensions  vanished.  He  had 
spent  so  many  months  among  their  silent  fastnesses  that 
he  knew  the  range  through  and  through.  His  plans  were 
daring  and  feasible,  his  reasoning  lucid,  and  his  enthusiasm 
infectious.  In  order  that  the  directing  hand  in  the  field 
might  not  be  trammelled  or  harassed  by  business  or  ad- 
ministration details,  a  special  emissary  was  deputed  to 
attend  to  these  secondary  but  vital  essentials,  so  that  Judah 
might  be  able  to  concentrate  his  energies  and  ability 
entirely  to  plotting  and  pushing  the  line  forwards. 

According  to  the  arrangement  with  the  Government,  the 
railway  was  to  commence  from  the  eastern  bank  of  the 
Missouri  River  at  Council  Bluffs.  The  selection  of  the 
eastern  bank  as  the  starting-point  involved  the  erection  of 
a  huge  bridge  as  the  first  step  in  the  undertaking.  Such 
an  idea  appears  somewhat  curious  at  first  sight,  as  one 
would  have  thought,  naturally,  that  the  western  bank  would 
have  been  selected  as  the  obvious  eastern  terminal.  But 
the  Government  recognised  one  point.  The  railways  were 
spreading  their  tentacles  slowly  but  surely  from  the  Atlantic 
coast  towards  the  Missouri  River.  When  they  gained  its 


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THE   FIRST   TRANS-CONTINENTAL         63 

banks  a  break  in  the  through  rail  communication  would 
develop,  as  the  eastern  railways  were  in  their  infancy,  and 
far  too  poor  to  undertake  the  construction  of  an  expensive 
bridge  across  this  wide  waterway  to  link  up  with  the 
line  stretching  to  San  Francisco. 

Construction  was  commenced  from  both  ends  of  the  line. 
San  Francisco  was  the  Pacific  terminal,  but  as  the  Golden 
Gate  was  connected  already  with  Sacramento,  the  capital 
some  miles  inland,  the  latter  place  was  the  point  to  which 
the  constructional  forces  were  dispatched.  The  arm  driven 
eastwards  from  the  Pacific  was  known  as  the  Union  Pacific 
railway,  while  that  forced  westwards  from  Council  Bluffs 
was  designated  as  the  Central  Pacific.  The  two  arms  were 
to  meet  about  half-way  across  the  continent. 

Judah  hurried  to  California  and  was  soon  in  the  turmoil 
of  his  task.  The  great  difficulty  on  this  section  was  in 
regard  to  the  supply  of  the  constructional  material.  Every- 
thing had  to  be  sent  round  by  water  via  the  most  southerly 
point  of  the  continent,  and  as  this  was  a  voyage  occupying 
several  weeks,  extreme  care  had  to  be  observed  to  send 
forward  supplies  in  a  steady,  constant  stream,  so  that  no 
delays  might  arise  from  lack  of  material.  But  storms 
raged,  while  the  negotiation  of  Cape  Horn  is  a  difficult 
feat  at  the  best  of  times.  The  boats  were  caught  in  the 
terrible  embrace  of  wind  and  wave,  and,  upon  emerging 
from  the  conflict,  struggled,  battered  and  torn,  into  the 
nearest  port  for  repairs.  Despite  these  heavy  drawbacks, 
which  no  human  foresight  could  determine  or  avoid,  prac- 
tically no  dearth  of  supplies  ever  was  experienced  at  the 
railhead  among  the  mountains.  In  fact,  Judah  prosecuted 
his  task  so  vigorously  that  before  many  months  had  passed 
the  first  railway  conquest  of  the  Sierras,  considered 
invulnerable  for  so  long,  was  announced  far  and  wide. 

How  was  it  accomplished?  The  pathfinder  followed 
the  easiest  path  open  to  him.  Distances  between  points 
might  have  been  shortened,  but  time  was  money.  The 
builders  had  urged  this  emphatically  upon  Judah,  so  that 
opportunity  to  indulge  in  stupendous  engineering  feats  was 


64     RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE    WORLD 

denied  him.  Yet  the  very  conditions  which  were  imposed 
enabled  the  pathfinder  to  display  some  master-strokes  of 
genius  unconsciously.  So  long  as  a  natural  path  for  the 
metals  was  available,  he  followed  it.  If  his  advance  were 
disputed  by  an  obstacle  he  either  removed  or  ran  round  it. 
The  hump  was  levelled  and  the  depression  was  filled. 
The  rivers  were  followed  so  far  as  practicable  along  their 
puzzling  meanderings.  He  lifted  the  track  several  thou- 
sand feet  towards  the  clouds  to  gain  the  railway  summit 
of  the  range,  and  then  dropped  over  the  other  side.  In 
one  place  among  the  snow-clad  peaks  he  had  to  hew  a 
narrow  shelf  out  of  the  solid  rocky  mass  to  wind  round  the 
huge  shoulder  of  a  mountain.  The  wall  of  rock  sheered  up 
on  one  side  to  a  dizzy  height ;  on  the  other  way  it  dropped 
for  over  a  thousand  feet  into  the  river  surging  below. 

The  San  Francisco  division  teemed  with  complex  and 
highly  troublesome  perplexities,  but  one  and  all  arose  from 
the  resistance  of  Nature.  Yet  they  were  slight  in  com- 
parison with  those  which  the  engineers  experienced  as  they 
pushed  forwards  from  the  Missouri  River.  /Here  it  was  the 
hostility  of  man  which  harassed  them.  The  Indians, 
driven  from  the  eastern  States  by  the  march  of  civilisation, 
resisted  its  further  approach  into  their  domain.  Fierce 
opposition  was  anticipated,  but  the  results  proved  far  more 
serious  than  the  most  gloomy  forebodings.  At  every  turn 
the  savages  swept  down  upon  the  little  band  toiling  in  the 
solitude  of  the  wilderness,  and  these  organised  onslaughts 
became  fiercer  and  fiercer  as  the  base  of  operations  was 
left  farther  and  farther  to  the  rear.  For  every  spike  that 
was  driven,  clinching  a  rail  to  its  wooden  cushion  beneath, 
an  arrow  sped  from  an  Indian  bow,  to  be  answered  by  the 
sharp  crack  of  a  rifle  from  the  railway  building  forces. 
History  does  not  record  how  many  navvies  fell  victims 
to  the  noiseless  weapon  of  the  savages,  or  how  many 
Indians  entered  the  Happy  Hunting  Ground  by  way  of  a 
bullet.  Yet  the  total  of  lives  would  outnumber  the  spikes 
driven  to  secure  the  metals  for  the  1,800  miles  between  the 
Missouri  River  and  the  Golden  Horn. 


THE   FIRST   TRANS-CONTINENTAL         65 

A  conclave  with  the  Red  Men  was  urgent  before  the 
engineers  stirred  from  the  bank  of  the  Missouri.  Council 
Bluffs  is  a  famous  spot  in  the  history  of  the  New  World, 
because  here  the  Indians  were  wont  for  centuries  to  meet  to 
settle  tribal  disputes.  It  was  here  that  Collis  P.  Hunting- 
ton  and  his  colleagues  met  the  Red  Men  to  discuss  the 
terms  and  treaty  for  the  acquisition  of  the  necessary  land 
to  found  the  city  of  Omaha. 

At  that  day  the  nearest  point  to  which  the  railway  had 
advanced  towards  the  river  from  the  east  was  Des  Moines. 
The  first  locomotive  required  for  constructional  purposes 
upon  the  Central  Pacific,  and  which  weighed  some  60  tons, 
had  to  be  hauled  across  country  on  the  deck  of  a  trolley 
by  teams  of  horses.  When  the  trans-continental  railway 
was  taken  in  hand,  however,  the  eastern  railways  were 
pushed  forward  with  great  speed  to  reach  Council  Bluffs, 
in  order  to  carry  the  thousands  of  tons  of  supplies  of  every 
description  requisite  for  building  purposes. 

The  scarcity  of  one  commodity  was  felt  severely.  In 
this  country  one  may  travel  for  miles  and  not  see  a  single 
tree.  This  hit  the  railway  hard.  Every  baulk  of  timber, 
whether  it  was  required  for  a  fire,  a  shack,  or  a  sleeper,  had 
to  be  brought  over  enormous  distances.  By  the  time  a 
sleeper  was  laid  it  often  cost  as  much  as  $2.50,  or  ten 
shillings  ! 

The  route  between  east  and  west  is  popularly  known  as 
the  "Overland  Route."  How  it  received  this  name  is  a 
little  story  in  itself.  Among  those  who  arrived  at  San 
Francisco  in  the  glorious  days  of  '47  to  make  money  out 
of  the  gold-rush  was  a  Dutchman,  whose  topsy-turvy 
English  was  characteristic  of  a  foreigner  possessing  only 
an  imperfect  acquaintance  with  our  tongue.  He  opened 
a  saloon,  which  became  a  most  popular  resort.  Whenever 
a  stranger  entered  the  rendezvous,  Boniface's  curiosity  was 
aroused.  The  new  arrival  was  asked  inevitably  by  which 
of  the  three  routes  he  had  gained  the  Golden  Gate.  "Did 
you  come  the  Horn  around,  the  Isthmus  across,  or  the 
land  over?"  the  Dutchman  inquired.  "The  land-over1' 


66     RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

signifying  the  wagon-trail  across  the  States,  so  appealed  to 
the  fancy  of  the  railway-builders  that  they  always  referred 
to  the  trans-continental  as  "the  land-over  route,"  which  in 
course  of  time  became  twisted  into  the  more  correct 
designation  under  which  it  is  known  to  this  day. 

The  level  character  of  the  country  west  of  the  Missouri 
River  lent  itself  favourably  to  rapid  construction,  as  well 
as  easy  alignment.  At  one  place  it  was  found  possible 
to  lay  the  track  as  straight  as  an  arrow  for  41  miles. 
The  grade  grew  quickly,  and  the  rails  advanced  in  a  con- 
tinuous black-grey  line  across  the  prairie  with  striking 
rapidity,  when  the  Indians  refrained  from  endeavouring 
to  arrest  its  progress.  However,  the  raids  of  the  Red  Men 
became  so  devastating  eventually  that  it  appeared  as  if 
work  must  be  brought  to  a  standstill. 

At  the  critical  moment  another  man  appeared  on  the 
scene,  and  his  efforts  contributed  very  materially  to  the 
completion  of  the  line.  This  was  Major  Frank  J.  North, 
one  of  the  most  daring  frontiersmen  that  those  troublous 
times  with  the  Indians  produced  in  America.  He  was 
Fenimore  Cooper's  mythical  "Pathfinder"  in  the  flesh, 
and  he  came  to  be  just  as  greatly  feared  by  the  Red  Men. 
When  the  railway  engineers  failed  to  make  headway 
against  the  Indians,  he  offered  his  services,  which,  needless 
to  say,  were  accepted  gladly.  From  that  moment  the 
protection  of  the  grade  became  his  one  object  in  life,  and 
his  capture  became  the  one  absorbing  ambition  of  the 
Indians.  He  had  roamed  the  plains  for  years,  leading  a 
rough-and-ready  frontier  life,  had  become  familiarised 
with  the  Indians,  their  habits,  customs  and  ways;  could 
anticipate  their  every  movement  and  knew  how  to  counteract 
their  subterfuges.  He  was  versed  thoroughly  in  their  ways 
of  warfare,  was  a  born  fighter,  and  was  possessed  of 
indomitable  energy  and  pluck. 

In  order  to  protect  the  railway-builders  he  raised  four 
companies  of  friendly  Pawnee  Indians.  With  these  trusty 
scouts  he  would  creep  out  stealthily  at  night  from  the  con- 
structional camp,  make  his  way  with  impunity  to  the  tepees 


THE   FIRST   TRANSCONTINENTAL          67 

of  the  Cheyennes  or  Sioux,  and  ascertain  their  projected 
operations.  Sometimes  he  would  surprise  an  Indian  camp, 
and  scatter  the  inmates  who  were  on  the  warpath  to  the 
four  winds.  His  marauding  expeditions  became  so  auda- 
cious that  the  natives  were  compelled  to  withdraw  a  respect- 
able distance  from  the  grade.  He  became  so  universally 
detested  among  the  foe  that  the  mention  of  North's  name 
was  sufficient  to  provoke  the  most  dismal  howls  of  execration 
and  vicious  snarls  of  vengeance. 

At  times  he  was  absent  so  many  days  from  the  railhead 
camp  that  the  engineers  wondered  gravely  whether  or  not 
he  had  met  an  untimely  end.  Then  when  they  were  on  the 
point  of  giving  up  hope  of  seeing  him  again,  he  would 
trot  unconcernedly  into  camp,  with  his  Pawnee  shadows, 
as  if  returning  from  a  hunt,  but  his  general  appearance 
and  self-satisfied  air  told  the  navvies  that  he  "had  been  at 
the  Indians  again."  He  provoked  the  hostile  Red  Men  to 
such  an  extreme  pitch  that  they  turned  out  in  tremendous 
force  sworn  to  his  capture  or  death.  Four  times  a  pitched 
battle  was  fought,  with  tremendous  losses;  four  times  the 
Indians  drew  off,  leaving  North  flushed  with  victory.  At 
last  the  enemy  became  so  disheartened  that  it  withdrew, 
retreated  for  miles  from  the  line,  and  there  was  a  sullen 
interval  in  the  conflict. 

North,  however,  was  not  to  be  lulled  into  a  false  sense  of 
security.  He  divined  that  some  ulterior  move  was  pro- 
jected. So  it  proved.  The  Indians,  instead  of  concentrat- 
ing their  energies  upon  the  destruction  of  the  forces  at  the 
railhead,  decided  to  attack  the  long  line  of  communication 
at  various  points,  to  surprise  and  destroy  the  supply  trains. 
A  guerilla  war  broke  out,  and  this  baffled  North,  for  he 
could  not  bring  them  to  a  pitched  battle. 

The  Indians  clung  like  limpets  to  the  grade,  and  woe 
betide  any  stragglers  who  fell  into  their  hands,  for  they 
were  cruelly  tortured  and  put  to  death.  Time  after  time, 
as  the  supply  train  was  puffing  along  slowly,  the  plain  on 
either  side  suddenly  would  reveal  hordes  of  ferocious 
savages,  who  had  crept  through  the  tall  grass  unobserved 

F  2 


68      RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF    THE    WORLD 

to  within  a  few  feet  of  the  track.  The  men  on  the  train 
secured  any  shelter  possible  behind  the  transported  goods, 
and  blazed  away  furiously.  Brisk  skirmishes  and  oppor- 
tunities to  display  marksmanship  occurred  nearly  every 
day  to  relieve  the  tedium  of  swinging  hammer,  pick-axe 
and  shovel.  Major  North  happened  to  be  attacked  in  this 
way  one  day,  though  the  enemy  were  unaware  of  his 
presence.  But  they  were  so  dismayed  at  the  spirited  recep- 
tion that  they  received  that  they  broke  and  fled,  with  North 
in  pursuit.  He  chased  them  for  hours,  and  inflicted  such 
losses  that  the  tribe  surrendered.  A  few  days  later  a  large 
number  of  the  vanquished  enlisted  under  the  railway- 
builder's  banner,  assisted  in  the  building  of  the  grade,  and 
became  law-abiding  citizens. 

There  was  one  point  which  was  a  tempting  prize  to  the 
Cheyennes.  This  was  a  depot  372  miles  west  of  Omaha. 
Its  safety  was  entrusted  to  North's  friendly  Indians,  and 
they  proved  too  watchful  to  enable  a  raid  to  be  made  with 
success.  The  Cheyennes  were  determined  to  secure  its 
capture,  and,  quietly  gathering  reinforcements,  one  day 
made  a  supreme  attempt  to  rush  it  with  a  thousand  men. 
It  was  a  desperate  battle  that  ensued,  but  the  defenders, 
being  entrenched,  secured  the  advantage,  and  after  fighting 
desperately  for  several  hours  were  left  in  possession  of  the 
hundreds  of  tons  of  supplies. 

These  tactics  had  to  be  pursued  for  some  500  miles,  but 
the  engineers  in  time  became  wearied  at  the  daily  round 
of  working  and  fighting.  Besides,  they  were  approaching 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  where  the  physical  difficulties  would 
be  so  great  as  to  demand  their  entire  concentration  in  order 
to  lift  the  metals  over  an  obstacle  8000  feet  above  the  sea. 
It  was  realised,  also,  that  the  broken  slopes  would  give  the 
Indians  every  advantage  to  prosecute  their  guerrilla  warfare 
to  distinct  advantage.  The  outlook  was  so  depressing  that 
a  halt  was  called.  The  situation  was  urged  upon  the 
Government,  and,  as  a  result,  General  Grant  decided  to 
interview  the  Indians  in  person,  with  a  view  to  placating 
them.  He  made  a  hazardous  and  exciting  journey  along 


THE   FIRST   TRANS-CONTINENTAL          69 

the  railway  to  the  heart  of  the  enemy's  country.  There, 
with  pow-wow  and  peace-pipe,  an  honourable  treaty  was 
drawn  up;  the  Indians  promised  to  abandon  their  opposi- 
tion,  and  to  permit  the  railway  to  go  forward. 

Another  difficulty  the  builders  had  to  battle  against  was 
the  scarcity  of  labour.  The  Californian  Gold  Fields  were 
too  magnetising  to  cause  the  men  to  stay  long  on  the  grade. 
They  preferred  to  woo  the  fickle  goddess  of  fortune  in  a 
scramble  for  the  yellow  metal,  to  a  steady,  daily  round  of 
toil  at  a  regular  wage.  As  a  last  resource  the  sheet-anchor 
of  the  railway-builder  had  to  be  called  in — the  Chinaman. 
The  Orientals  stuck  to  the  work,  and  under  their  efforts 
the  line  progressed  with  greater  speed  than  had  been  pos- 
sible before  their  advent.  At  one  time  the  rails  were  laid 
so  speedily  that  the  teams  could  not  bring  up  supplies  fast 
enough  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  graders  and  track-layers. 

The  permanent  way  was  crude.  It  was  a  pioneer  line  in 
very  truth.  The  earth  was  thrown  up  roughly,  the  sleepers 
were  dumped  on  its  crown,  and  the  rails  were  hastily  spiked 
to  their  bed.  The  line  was  little  better  than  what  one  sees 
hastily  improvised  for  the  transportation  of  spoil  on  large 
engineering  works.  It  writhed  and  twisted  among  obstruc- 
tions in  a  fantastic  manner,  for  the  engineers,  having 
neither  funds  nor  time  at  their  disposal,  merely  ran  round 
or  over  humps,  whichever  method  was  the  quicker.  Speed 
and  comfort  were  negligible  considerations.  The  line,  once 
communication  with  the  coast  was  established,  could  be 
overhauled  and  strengthened  later  at  leisure.  Conse- 
quently, travelling  was  rough,  the  oscillation  was  severe, 
and  the  danger  of  derailment  always  existent.  It  was  these 
conditions  that  prompted  a  phlegmatic  Englishman,  who 
essayed  the  journey  shortly  after  the  line  was  opened,  to 
remark  that  "the  train  travelled  more  smoothly  when  it  was 
off  the  rails  !  " 

Some  idea  of  the  speed  with  which  work  was  prosecuted, 
the  innumerable  drawbacks  notwithstanding,  may  be 
gathered  from  the  fact  that  the  whole  1,800  miles  of  line 
were  built  and  opened  to  traffic  within  six  years  from  the 


70     RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

turning  of  the  first  spadeful  of  earth  at  Sacramento.  For 
the  greater  part  of  this  distance  the  monthly  average  was 
50  miles — truly  a  magnificent  feat.  In  order  to  maintain 
this  high  pressure,  25,000  men  and  5000  cattle  teams  were 
required,  and  the  total  cost  of  the  work  was  $115,000,000, 
or,  roughly,  ^23,000,000. 

The  dawn  of  the  year  1869  saw  the  two  advancing  arms 
racing  towards  the  Great  Salt  Lake.  The  Central  Pacific, 
upon  encountering  this  inland  sea,  debouched  to  the  north 
and  plunged  into  the  broken  Promontory  Range.  Here, 
at  an  altitude  of  5000  feet,  the  two  arms  met,  and,  amid  the 
wild  huzzas  of  over  a  thousand  people,  the  last  gap  was 
closed,  and  golden  spikes  were  driven  into  a  sleeper  of 
polished  laurel  by  Leland  Stanford  and  Thomas  Durant, 
the  presidents  of  the  respective  divisions,  to  admit  the 
passage  of  a  train,  waiting  close  by  with  steam  up,  to  pass 
from  the  Central  to  the  Union  Pacific  Railway.  The 
precise  point  at  which  the  opposing  armies  met  is  indicated 
by  a  board  standing  beside  the  track,  the  inscription  on 
which  runs — 

LAST   SPIKE, 

COMPLETING    FIRST 

TRANS-CONTINENTAL   RAILROAD 

DRIVEN   AT   THIS    POINT, 

MAY    10,   1869. 

The  occasion  was  one  of  great  rejoicing,  especially 
among  the  citizens  of  San  Francisco.  The  town  went  mad 
with  excitement.  The  festivities  commenced  two  days 
before  the  golden  spike  was  driven,  and  was  continued  for 
two  days  afterwards.  Literature  contributed  its  quota  to 
the  commemoration  of  the  historic  event  in  the  form  of  a 
poem  from  Bret  Harte. 

In  crossing  the  prairie  stretches  the  railway  construc- 
tional forces  were  indebted  appreciably  for  their  support 
to  the  buffalo,  which  roamed  the  plains  in  tens  of  thou- 
sands. The  slaughter  of  this  animal  was  tremendous  to 
provide  fresh  meat  for  the  camps,  and  hides  for  the  clothing 


THE   FIRST  TRANS-CONTINENTAL          71 

of  the  workmen  against  the  blasts  and  severe  cold  of  winter. 
Their  existence  was  providential,  especially  when  the 
Indians  succeeded  in  capturing  and  destroying  the  supply 
trains  bringing  up  provisions.  Water  often  was  a  serious 
problem.  For  stretches  of  over  a  hundred  miles  at  a  time 
not  a  drop  could  be  obtained  from  the  parched  land,  and 
specially-built  cars  had  to  be  pressed  into  service  to 
transport  this  indispensable  commodity. 

Some  idea  of  the  solitude  of  the  country  may  be  gathered 
from  the  fact  that  during  a  continuous  600  miles  not  a 
single  white  man  or  homestead  was  seen.  Before  the  line 
was  completed  a  pony  express  plied  between  Sacramento 
and  Salt  Lake  City,  and  the  journey  under  normal  con- 
ditions occupied  three  and  a  half  days.  To-day  the  distance 
is  covered  in  about  one-third  of  the  time. 

In  the  course  of  a  few  years  the  traffic  on  the  Overland 
Route  assumed  such  proportions  as  to  be  beyond  the 
capacity  of  the  ill-laid  track.  The  grades  were  too  heavy 
and  the  curves  too  sharp,  while  rails  and  bridges  were 
too  light.  Extensive  reconstruction  was  taken  in  hand. 
Banks  were  abolished,  curves  were  straightened,  bridges 
were  rebuilt,  the  permanent  way  was  re-ballasted,  short 
sections  were  cut  out  here,  or  introduced  there,  to  reduce 
the  mileage — in  short,  the  whole  line  was  rebuilt  practically 
at  an  expenditure  of  millions  to  bring  the  great  highway 
up  to  the  model  of  present-day  practice. 

One  of  the  most  important  of  these  improvement  works 
was  that  known  as  the  Lucin  Cut-ofT.  This  was  a  daring 
piece  of  engineering  forced  upon  the  railway  by  rival  lines, 
which,  possessing  easier  grades  and  a  better-  alignment, 
could  haul  heavier  loads  at  a  speed  beyond  the  capacity  of 
the  pioneer  road.  This  adverse  factor  was  experienced 
very  severely  around  the  north  end  of  Salt  Lake,  where 
the  line  plunges  into  the  rugged  and  broken  Promontory 
Range,  to  overcome  which  such  heavy  grades  had  to  be 
introduced  as  to  reduce  the  speed  of  trains  to  a  crawl  of 
12  miles  per  hour. 

At  first  it  appeared  impracticable  to  ease  this  situation, 


72     RAILWAY   CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

but  the  chief  engineer  was  called  in  and  urged  to  find  a 
means  of  extricating  the  company  from  the  predicament. 
After  several  months'  survey  around  this  sheet  of  water 
he  prepared  plans  which  he  submitted  to  his  directors. 
They  were  extremely  audacious.  He  suggested  the  aban- 
donment of  373  miles  of  the  old  line  completely,  as  it  was 
beyond  improvement.  In  its  place  he  proposed  326  miles 
of  new  track,  which  not  only  showed  a  saving  of  57  miles 
in  distance,  but  gave  no  ruling  grade  exceeding  21.12  feet 
per  mile.  At  one  point  he  was  baulked  by  the  configura- 
tion of  the  country  in  the  Pequop  range,  where  a  grade  of 
74  feet  to  the  mile  was  found  unavoidable.  Moreover,  he 
showed  a  saving  of  over  half-a-mile  in  vertical  height,  the 
climb  on  the  westward  run  being  cut  down  from  4,550  feet 
to  1,535  feet,  an(3  on  tne  eastward  journey  from  4,456^  feet 
to  1,444  feet- 

The  salient  feature  of  the  scheme,  however,  challenged 
particular  attention.  Instead  of  running  around  Salt  Lake 
he  advocated  a  route  across  it,  giving  a  line  as  direct  as  the 
bird  flies  from  shore  to  shore,  supported  on  earthen  em- 
bankments where  such  could  be  erected,  and  in  other  places 
upon  a  timber  viaduct.  Some  idea  of  what  this  scheme 
represented  may  be  gathered  from  the  construction  of  a 
bridge  from  Dover  to  Calais — a  project  that  has  been 
promulgated — for  the  distance  was  about  the  same. 

The  engineer  was  prompted  in  his  belief  as  to  the  prac- 
ticability of  the  suggestion  from  his  personal  investiga- 
tions. Popular  fancy  had  clothed  this  stretch  of  salt  water 
in  many  legends,  one  of  which  was  that  its  depths  were 
unfathomable.  This  fallacy  was  scattered  to  the  winds 
when  soundings  were  taken,  for  the  water  was  found  to  be 
comparatively  shallow  at  the  point  it  was  contemplated  to 
cross  the  lake.  Collis  P.  Huntington  hesitated  from  em- 
barking upon  the  scheme  when  it  was  first  unfolded,  partly 
on  account  of  its  estimated  cost,  but  more  because  of  its 
unusual  character. 

However,  when  E.  H.  Harriman  secured  the  control  of 
the  line,  he  entertained  no  qualms.  His  engineer  said  it 


THE   FIRST   TRANS-CONTINENTAL         73 

was  feasible,  so  it  must  be  done  to  avoid  that  laborious 
haul  over  the  hills  to  the  north.  Work  commenced  forth- 
with, and  was  pursued  with  great  vigour.  When  the  bank 
of  the  lake  was  gained,  the  engineer  pushed  the  earthen 
embankment  as  far  into  the  water  as  he  could,  so  as  to 
reduce  the  extent  of  the  trestling.  The  distance  from  shore 
to  shore  was  27  miles,  but  as  he  took  advantage  of  a 
peninsula  which  juts  well  into  the  water  from  the  north 
bank,  four  miles  of  the  line  were  built  on  dry  land. 

To  commence  the  embankment  from  the  water's  edge  an 
ingenious  expedient  was  adopted.  Heavy  planks  loaded 
with  weighty  bags  of  sand  were  floated  out  on  the  proposed 
location,  and  upon  this  novel  permanent  way  the  temporary 
rails  for  the  ballast  cars  were  laid,  and  the  spoil  dumped 
into  the  lake  until  the  embankment  appeared  above  water- 
level.  Then  the  section  of  floating  track  was  pushed  still 
farther  ahead,  and  the  same  cycle  of  operations  repeated 
until  the  limit  of  the  earthwork  was  gained.  As  the  em- 
bankment grew  in  height  the  light  rails  were  replaced  by 
a  heavier  type,  over  which  rumbled  cars  carrying  40  tons 
of  ballast  a-piece,  and  which  was  pitched  pell-mell  into  the 
water  on  either  side.  The  embankment  was  then  left  for 
a  while  to  permit  settling  to  take  place.  In  time  it  became 
as  solid  as  a  jetty. 

The  trestle  section  proved  the  most  trying,  not  so  much 
on  account  of  the  technical  questions  involved,  but  owing 
to  the  difficulty  in  obtaining  timber.  The  wood  had  to  be 
brought  hundreds  of  miles  from  the  forests  of  Texas  and 
the  north-west.  Extensive  stretches  of  trees  were  purchased 
and  saw-mills  were  erected  to  cut  the  logs  to  the  desired 
dimensions  on  the  spot.  Upon  arrival  at  Salt  Lake  the 
wood  was  dumped  into  the  water,  large  log  booms  being 
formed,  so  that  the  material  might  become  seasoned 
thoroughly. 

Work  was  delayed  considerably  by  the  lack  of  supplies 
of  timber,  from  storms  which  swept  this  inland  sea,  and 
which  at  times  wrought  considerable  damage.  At  one  or 
two  places,  although  careful  soundings  were  taken,  the  lake 


74     RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

bed  proved  fickle.  When  the  pile-drivers  were  set  to  work, 
banging  the  massive  uprights  into  the  solid  earth,  progress 
would  be  painfully  slow  for  a  time,  and  then  suddenly  the 
pile  would  descend  with  uncanny  rapidity.  The  cause  was 
discovered  readily.  The  lake  bed  is  covered  with  a  thick 
crust  of  salt  and  soda  deposits,  the  accumulation  of 
centuries,  packed  so  hard  as  to  give  the  semblance  of  being 
solid  rock  when  sounded.  Yet  it  was  only  a  shell  or  crust 
covering  unstable  soil  below.  Driving  the  piles  broke  up 
this  rind,  and  then  a  solid  foundation  could  not  be  found. 

Attempts  to  remedy  this  state  of  affairs  were  made  by 
pitching  rock  into  the  water  to  provide  a  solid  floor  to  sup- 
port the  timber  uprights.  This  method  proved  so  slow  and 
expensive  that  the  engineer  devised  another  solution  of  the 
difficulty.  He  ran  out  a  light  trestle  and  dumped  rubble 
overboard  around  its  foundations  until  the  woodwork  was 
buried  completely,  and  a  solid  earthen  embankment  was 
produced  to  carry  the  rails. 

The  actual  extent  of  timber  trestling  aggregates  12 
miles,  and  this  erection  spans  the  lake  practically  at  its 
narrowest  central  part.  Some  of  the  pile-drivers  were 
carried  on  floating  pontoons,  while  others  were  mounted 
on  the  track  above,  the  permanent  way  being  pushed 
forward  as  rapidly  as  the  timber  work  was  completed. 
Owing  to  the  depth  of  the  water,  some  of  the  upright 
members  are  as  much  as  no  feet  in  length.  They  are 
disposed  in  rows  of  five  at  right  angles  to  the  track,  and 
connected  by  massive  longitudinal  members,  on  which 
is  laid  three-inch  planking,  superimposed  with  a  layer 
of  ballast.  It  was  while  building  the  timber  work  that 
the  greatest  depth  of  water  was  reached — from  30  to  34 
feet. 

The  trestle  was  erected  with  striking  rapidity,  the  record 
being  the  completion  of  no  less  than  5,317  feet  of  track  in 
six  working  days.  Had  it  been  possible  to  bring  the  timber 
up  more  quickly,  a  greater  length  of  line  could  have  been 
laid  in  the  time.  At  rail-level  the  viaduct  is  16  feet 
in  width,  and  the  track  is  so  smooth  and  solid  that  the 


THE   FIRST   TRANS-CONTINENTAL          75 

"Overland  Limited"  can  hurtle  along  at  full  speed 
without  producing  the  slightest  vibration. 

By  the  time  the  viaduct  was  completed,  38,256  piles  had 
been  used.  This  represented  no  less  than  2,824,700  lineal 
feet  of  timber  which  had  been  torn  from  the  forests.  If 
these  logs  had  been  placed  end  to  end  they  would  have 
formed  a  continuous  line  for  nearly  535  miles. 

So  straight  did  the  engineer  plot  and  build  the  Lucin 
Cut-off,  that  even  if  he  had  complied  with  Euclid's  defini- 
tion of  a  straight  line,  it  would  have  been  necessary  only 
to  have  deducted  1,708  feet  from  the  102.91  miles  of  track 
which  he  laid.  In  addition,  he  abolished  3,919  degrees  of 
curves.  To  understand  what  this  means  it  is  only  necessary 
to  remember  that  each  degree  represents  a  segment  of  the 
circle.  By  dividing  the  above  total  by  360,  the  number 
of  degrees  to  the  circle,  a  result  of  n.88  circles  is  obtained. 
In  other  words,  on  the  old  route  between  Lucin  and  Ogden, 
the  train  not  only  traversed  the  distance  between  the  two 
points,  but  described  nearly  12  circles  as  well.  For  36 
miles  the  track  is  dead  level  and  for  another  30  miles  the 
rise  is  so  slight  that  one  has  to  walk  half-a-mile  to  rise  his 
own  height.  By  the  time  the  task  was  completed  a  round 
;£  i,  000,000,  or  $5,000,000,  had  been  expended.  It  appears 
a  huge  outlay  to  reduce  working  expenses  and  to  increase 
revenue,  but  it  affords  a  striking  illustration  of  the  boldness 
of  guiding  railway  spirits  in  America. 


CHAPTER    VI 


THE  Principality  is  a  land  of  many  surprises  to  the 
visitor,  for  it  possesses  innumerable  attractions.  Yet  it 
is  doubtful  whether  any  feature  arouses  more  interest  in 
North  Wales  than  the  strange  little  railway  which  runs 
from  Portmadoc  for  a  distance  of  I3J  miles  among  the 
mountains.  Certain  it  is  that  no  tourist  would  think  of 
omitting  a  journey  over  what  is  known  colloquially  as  the 
Festiniog  "Toy  "  Railway,  for  it  is  one  of  the  great  sights 
of  North  Wales. 

For  several  years  it  held  a  unique  position  among 
the  great  systems  of  the  world  as  the  narrowest  gauge 
line  in  operation.  The  metals  are  laid  only  23!  inches 
apart — less  than  half  the  distance  between  the  rails 
forming  the  roads  of  the  greater  proportion  of  steel 
highways  bounding  the  globe — and  yet  it  has  a  traffic 
which  many  a  more  important  railway  would  have  just 
cause  to  envy.  Visitors  disembarking  from  the  London 
&  North- Western  express  at  Portmadoc,  and  seeing  the 
diminutive  engine  and  trucks  drawn  up  alongside  on  their 
own  road  and  completely  dwarfed  by  the  towering  rolling- 
stock  of  the  standard-gauge  line,  cannot  repress  a  smile, 
for  the  engines,  cars,  trucks  and  wagons  are  no  larger 
than  are  used  upon  the  larger-sized  model  railways  devised 
to-day  for  the  amusement  and  education  of  the  young. 

Yet  it  is  a  complete  pocket  edition  of  the  familiar  rail- 
way, and  its  capacity  is  amazing.  The  engine  provokes 
interest,  for  it  is  no  taller  than  an  average-sized  person.  Its 
coupled  wheels  are  only  28  inches  in  diameter,  while  the 
cylinders  measure  but  8J  inches  in  diameter  and  have  a 

76 


THE   LONGEST   "TOY"   RAILWAY  77 

stroke  of  only  13  inches.  The  cars  and  wagons  are  on 
the  same  scale,  and  the  first  impression  of  the  diminutive 
iron  horse  awakens  doubts  as  to  whether  it  is  safe  to  trust 
oneself  to  its  care.  But  see  that  self-same  engine  busy  at 
work  hauling  a  train  of  7  passenger  coaches,  a  guard's 
van,  10  goods  wagons  and  100  or  more  empty  slate 
trucks,  stretching  out  for  a  length  of  1,200  feet  and  repre- 
senting a  total  load  of  no  tons,  out  of  Portmadoc,  bound 
for  the  quarries,  and  disdain  gives  way  to  complete 
admiration. 

The  locomotive  "Little  Wonder,"  despite  its  age,  for  it 
dates  back  from  1869,  completely  justifies  its  appellation, 
for  it  handles  the  above  load  on  the  steepest  grades  with 
ease,  and  attains  a  speed  of  30  miles  an  hour  where 
the  physical  conditions  are  suited  to  fast  travelling.  The 
work  it  has  to  fulfil  is  not  to  be  despised  by  any  means, 
for  the  country  through  which  the  line  extends  is  amongst 
the  most  rugged  in  the  country.  In  the  course  of  the 
thirteen  and  a  quarter  miles  it  has  to  overcome  a  difference 
of  700  feet  in  altitude,  which  means  a  pull  against  the  collar 
for  the  whole  way  from  Portmadoc,  though  the  gradients 
are  of  varying  severity.  Yet  even  the  easiest  climb  is 
i  in  186,  while  the  steepest  rise  is  i  in  68.6;  with  a  bank 
of  no  less  than  i  in  36  on  one  of  the  spur  lines.  The 
curves  likewise  are  startling  in  their  sharpness  and  fre- 
quency, and  at  times  when  the  engine  is  loaded  to  its 
utmost  capacity  the  train  may  be  seen  writhing  like  a 
gigantic  black  snake  along  three  curves  at  the  same  time. 

The  permanent  way  was  originally  laid  in  1839,  the 
enterprise  having  been  carried  out  for  the  conveyance  of 
slate  from  the  quarries  to  Portmadoc.  On  the  downward 
journey  the  laden  trucks  travelled  by  gravity,  the  empties 
being  hauled  back  by  horses.  In  the  late  'fifties,  however, 
the  chief  engineer,  Mr.  C.  E.  Spooner,  realising  the  far- 
reaching  advantages  arising  from  the  use  of  power,  sug- 
gested that  the  tramway  should  be  converted  into  a  railway, 
and  in  1863  his  suggestion  was  adopted.  In  the  early  days 
travelling  was  exciting,  for  the  bridges  and  tunnels  were 


78     RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

so  low  that  the  engine-driver,  stoker  and  other  officials 
on  the  line  had  to  duck  their  heads  when  they  reached 
these  obstacles,  since  to  stand  upright  in  one  of  the  vehicles 
was  certain  to  court  a  violent  end  by  collision  with  these 
structures.  These,  however,  have  been  altered  so  that  one 
need  entertain  no  more  apprehension  concerning  safety  on 
this  line  than  when  travelling  upon  a  standard-gauge  road. 
Visitors,  realising  the  fact  that  by  its  means  they  could  be 
conveyed  comfortably  to  some  of  the  wildest  and  most 
beautiful  corners  of  the  Principality,  sought  its  trans- 
portation assistance,  and  in  1864  passengers  were  first 
carried  as  an  experiment,  but  free  of  charge.  The  Board 
of  Trade  did  not  decline  to  sanction  its  operation  in  the 
interests  of  the  public,  but  possibly  somewhat  dubious  of 
the  wisdom  of  their  action,  hedged  in  the  privilege  with 
certain  restrictions,  the  most  important  of  which  was 
limitation  of  speed.  When,  however,  it  was  proved  that 
there  was  no  danger  in  travelling  over  this  two-foot  line 
at  30  miles  an  hour  this  latter  ban  was  removed. 

The  line  possesses  several  features  of  technical  interest, 
and  being  a  single  track,  is  operated  upon  the  staff  system, 
with  every  device  to  secure  absolute  safety  in  operation 
in  the  form  of  signalling  and  telegraphing  facilities. 
Moreover,  travelling  is  comfortable,  for  although  the  gauge 
is  less  than  two  feet,  the  cars,  designed  by  the  engineer, 
are  built  on  the  bogie  principle  and  have  seating  accom- 
modation for  fifty  passengers.  A  trip  over  the  line 
certainly  constitutes  an  experience. 

The  complete  success  which  attended  the  conversion  of 
this  railway  from  equine-  to  steam-power  in  1864  stimulated 
the  wider  adoption  of  the  narrow-gauge  system,  though 
as  a  rule  this  term  is  somewhat  elastic,  inasmuch  as  it 
signifies  that  such  a  railway  has  a  gauge  less  than  the 
standard  width  of  4  feet  8J  inches,  and  is  particularly 
associated  with  the  39  inch  or  42  inch  gauge.  Still  several 
"two-foot"  lines  were  laid  down,  especially  in  France  and 
India,  so  that  the  Festiniog  experiment  has  proved  a  very 
profitable  "toy"  to  more  countries  than  one.  In  fact, 


THE    LONGEST  "TOY"   RAILWAY  79 

not  far  distant  from  the  pioneer  toy  railway  is  another — 
the  North  Wales  Narrow  Gauge  railway — which  connects 
Dinas,  near  Carnarvon,  with  Snowdon  Station. 

These  railway  systems,  however,  are  of  short  length, 
and  when  one  remembers  the  broken  character  of  the 
country  which  they  serve,  their  raison  d'etre  is  obvious. 
But  the  application  of  the  idea  to  a  trunk  line  360  miles 
in  length  appears  quite  impracticable.  Yet  it  has  been 
accomplished,  and  its  realisation  has  opened  up  a  corner 
of  Africa  which  formerly  was  almost  impassable,  and 
which,  but  for  its  fulfilment,  would  have  left  the  country 
traversed  in  the  hands  of  hostile  natives. 

This  "toy  "  railway  upon  a  large  scale  is  the  Otavi  Line, 
which  connects  Tsumeb,  buried  368  miles  in  the  heart  of 
the  wilderness  of  German  South- West  Africa,  with  the 
coast  at  Swapkomund.  To-day  it  ranks  as  the  longest 
narrowest  gauge  line  in  the  world,  the  metals,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  Festiniog  railway,  being  laid  only  600 
millimetres,  or  approximately  two  feet  apart. 

In  the  late  'eighties  prospecting  parties  who  had  heard 
of  the  mineral  wealth  lying  dormant  in  this  inhospitable 
and  inaccessible  country,  set  out  to  ascertain  whether 
rumour  could  be  verified  to  a  sufficient  extent  to  ensure 
the  riches  of  the  rocks  being  exploited  commercially.  They 
suffered  great  privations  and  hardships  in  their  toil  across 
the  waterless  veldt,  but  when  they  gained  the  Otavi  country 
they  found  that  their  journey  was  more  than  repaid  by 
enormous  discoveries  of  copper.  They  collected  detailed 
information  concerning  the  extent  of  these  deposits,  and 
when  they  returned  to  Europe  it  was  decided  to  develop 
the  new  "Copperado"  without  further  delay. 

However,  there  was  one  critical  point.  How  could  the 
mineral,  after  being  mined,  be  transported  to  the  coast 
for  shipment.  The  intervening  country  was  among  the 
most  sterile  to  be  found  in  the  continent  south  of  the 
Sahara.  The  mining  companies  concerned  at  once  sug- 
gested a  railway  as  the  only  solution  of  the  problem. 
But  they  realised  very  readily,  from  the  reports  of  their 


8o     RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

emissaries  who  had  ventured  to  Otavi,  that  such  an  under- 
taking was  beset  with  difficulties  innumerable,  while  the 
construction  of  a  line  upon  the  standard  gauge  would 
prove  ruinously  expensive.  In  order  to  secure  extrication 
from  their  plight  the  companies  approached  the  firm  of 
Arthur  Koppel  of  Berlin.  The  latter  company  dispatched 
a  corps  of  its  own  surveyors  to  the  country  to  spy  out 
the  desert  between  the  coast  and  the  mines,  in  order  to 
find  the  best  location  and  to  report  generally  upon  the 
engineering  features  of  the  scheme. 

When  the  surveyors  returned  to  civilisation  they  un- 
hesitatingly recommended  a  light  narrow-gauge  railway, 
such  as  they  had  built  in  several  parts  of  the  world  where 
similar  conditions  prevailed.  They  advocated  the  600  milli- 
metre or  two-foot  gauge  because  it  not  only  would  meet 
all  traffic  requirements  for  many  years  to  come,  but  its 
initial  cost  would  be  so  much  cheaper,  and  it  could  be 
built  so  much  more  quickly  than  a  wider  or  standard 
gauge.  The  recommendation  was  debated  at  great  length, 
and  after  discussing  the  relative  estimated  capital  and 
operating  costs  of  lines  of  different  gauges,  the  overwhelm- 
ing advantages  presented  by  the  "toy-line"  gauge  were 
found  to  outweigh  any  arguments  that  could  be  raised 
against  it.  The  mining  companies  merely  demanded  the 
line  as  a  link  between  the  copper  country  and  the  coast 
for  their  own  purposes.  The  country  lying  between  the 
coast  and  the  mines  held  out  no  attractions  for  any 
economic  development,  so  that  all  the  requisitions  likely 
to  be  made  by  the  mining  companies  could  be  met 
adequately  by  such  a  railway.  Consequently  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  engineers  was  accepted,  and  they  were 
entrusted  with  the  completion  of  the  undertaking. 

When  the  mining  companies  expressed  their  decision 
they  did  not  anticipate  the  extraordinary  traffic  which  the 
railway  would  be  called  upon  to  fulfil  a  little  later.  These 
were  duties  which  not  only  taxed  the  capacity  of  the 
diminutive  railway  to  a  supreme  degree,  but  were  of  a 
character  which  justified  the  confidence  of  the  engineers 


THE   LONGEST   "TOY"   RAILWAY  81 

and     practically     saved     the     colony     to     the     German 
Empire. 

This  reproduction  of  the  Festiniog  toy  railway  was 
commenced  without  loss  of  time.  In  1903  constructional 
engineers  with  a  boat-load  of  constructional  material  were 
dispatched  to  South  Africa,  and  the  grade  was  commenced 
from  Swakopmund,  at  a  point  40  feet  above  the  sea-level, 
the  location  extending  in  a  north-easterly  direction  to 
Otavi,  300  miles  distant  in  the  interior. 

The  first  sod  was  turned  in  October,  and  the  con- 
structional engineers  bent  to  their  task  with  great  zest. 
But  scarcely  had  they  got  into  their  stride  when  the  Hereros 
rebellion  broke  out.  This  was  an  unexpected  development, 
and  as  the  natives  had  been  recruited  in  large  numbers 
to  build  the  permanent  way,  the  engineers  were  faced  with 
a  grave  situation.  At  the  first  signs  of  the  insurrection 
the  greater  majority  of  the  natives  threw  down  their  tools 
and  stampeded  from  the  line  to  their  towns  and  villages 
to  take  up  arms.  The  Governor  of  the  colony  strove  to 
arrest  this  wholesale  desertion  by  recourse  to  drastic 
measures — he  seized  as  many  men  working  on  the  grade 
as  he  could  and  placed  them  safely  under  lock  and  key. 
The  result  was  that  the  little  band  of  white  engineers  was 
left  with  scarcely  a  navvy  to  assist  them. 

However,  they  struggled  on  as  best  they  could,  but 
progress  was  painfully  slow.  At  first  the  insurrection 
was  belittled — regarded  as  a  flash  in  the  pan — and  the 
engineers  anticipated  confidently  the  early  return  of  their 
workmen.  But  these  illusions  were  dispelled  rudely  when 
it  became  realised  at  last  that  the  country  was  up  in  arms 
trom  end  to  end.  There  was  only  one  way  out  of  the 
desperate  situation,  and  that  was  to  import  labour  from 
Europe.  Such  a  step  upset  the  preliminary  estimates  for 
:he  undertaking  to  a  pronounced  degree,  for  the  native 
abour  had  been  taken  into  the  calculation  when  framing 
:he  cost  of  the  work.  To  bring  white  labour  from  Europe 
ncreased  the  capital  outlay  very  appreciably.  However, 
:here  was  no  alternative,  and  accordingly  an  Italian 
G 


82      RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF    THE    WORLD 

contractor  arrived  on  the  scene  with  a  small  army  of  300 
Italians,  and  work  resumed  its  former  busy  aspect. 

However,  peace  did  not  reign  for  long.  The  Italian 
workmen  saw  that  they  held  the  advantage  over  the 
engineers,  that  there  was  no  competitive  labour,  and  accord- 
ingly they  struck  for  higher  pay.  The  engineers,  caught 
on  the  horns  of  a  dilemma,  had  to  surrender,  and  the 
Italians  picked  up  their  tools.  Then  another  cause  of 
dissatisfaction  manifested  itself.  The  workmen  concluded 
that  they  were  being  driven  too  hard,  so  they  declined  to 
perform  a  full  day's  labour.  They  held  the  whip-hand 
and  emphasised  its  potency  so  frequently,  and  the  friction 
between  employers  and  employed  became  so  keen,  that  it 
appeared  more  than  once  as  if  the  contract  would  have 
to  be  suspended  until  the  rebellion  was  quelled. 

While  these  disputes 'and  continual  bickerings  were  at 
their  height  further  complication  was  provoked.  The 
German  military  authorities,  finding  the  subjugation  of 
the  Hereros  a  far  heavier  task  than  they  had  anticipated, 
wished  to  penetrate  into  the  heart  of  the  country  so  as  to 
strike  a  supreme  blow  upon  the  enemy's  stronghold.  They 
had  their  own  line  extending  from  Swakopmund  to 
Windhuk,  but  owing  to  its  heavy  grades  and  light  con- 
struction it  had  broken  down  completely  under  the  strain 
of  the  heavy  military  traffic.  The  authorities  strove  to 
alleviate  this  situation  by  utilising  bullock-carts  to  trans- 
port troops  and  commissariat  up-country,  but  this  alter- 
native failed  lamentably.  This  service  was  so  slow,  and 
the  absence  of  water  by  the  wayside  was  felt  to  a  serious 
degree.  In  their  extremity  the  German  Government 
appealed  to  the  engineers  of  the  Otavi  line.  They  besought 
them  to  spare  no  effort  to  drive  the  railway  forward 
speedily,  first  to  Ouguati,  109!  miles  from  the  coast,  and 
then  to  Omaruru,  145  miles  beyond  the  former  point. 
As  an  inducement  the  builders  were  offered  a  heavy 
premium. 

The  engineers  agreed  to  meet  official  demands,  and  to 
expedite  the  constructional  work  a  further  army  of  750 


THE   LONGEST   "TOY"   RAILWAY  83 

Italians  and  500  Ovambo  coolies  was  sent  to  reinforce  the 
forces  on  the  grade.  To  tempt  the  Italian  workmen  to 
strive  their  utmost  they  offered  a  fixed  minimum  wage  as 
an  incentive.  However,  it  was  not  long  before  trouble 
arose  once  more.  The  new  arrivals  fraternised  with  their 
compatriots  already  on  the  scene,  and  learned  how  the 
engineers  had  been  forced  to  pay  higher  and  higher  wages 
by  recourse  to  strikes.  The  Italians  came  to  the  conclusion 
that  concerted  action  would  be  highly  successful  because 
several  weeks  would  elapse  before  their  places  could  be 
taken  by  other  imported  labour,  while  they  regarded  the 
Ovambo  coolies,  who  proved  industrious  workmen,  with 
supreme  contempt.  Every  conceivable  obstacle  was  thrown 
in  the  way  of  the  engineers.  Work  was  stopped  upon  the 
slightest  provocation,  and  apparent  grievances  were  aired 
with  monotonous  frequency. 

When  at  last  they  were  placated  and  the  workmen  did 
settle  down  to  their  tasks  they  proceeded  in  a  lackadaisical 
manner,  and  the  day's  work  was  only  a  quarter  of  what 
might  have  been  accomplished.  Under  ordinary  circum- 
stances each  Italian  could  have  coped  with  10  cubic  yards 
of  earthwork  per  day,  but  they  handled  only  about  2f 
cubic  yards  !  This  rendered  them  distinctly  inferior  to 
the  Ovambos,  who,  though  not  comparable  with  the 
Europeans  from  the  physical  point  of  view,  plodded  along 
steadily,  and  handled  on  the  average  from  3^  to  4  cubic 
yards  per  day.  The  Italians  had  no  complaint  concerning 
their  scale  of  payment,  for  they  received  from  55.  to  los. — 
$1.25  to  $2.00 — per  day,  while  the  coolies,  who  did  twice 
the  work,  received  but  25.  6d.  or  60  cents  a  day,  together 
with  food  and  housing  accommodation. 

One  day  matters  reached  a  climax.  The  white  workmen 
struck  in  a  body,  and  declined  to  move  a  hand  unless  they 
received  another  increase  in  wages.  The  engineers,  who 
had  been  groaning  under  the  extortionate  demands  of  the 
blackmailing  Italians  for  several  weeks  past,  now  took  a 
firm  stand.  They  declined  point-blank  to  entertain  the 
proposal.  Moreover,  they  commenced  to  take  the  law  into 

G  2 


84     RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

their  own  hands  and  to  adopt  stern  measures.  Several  of 
the  leading  recalcitrants  were  straightway  dismissed  for 
breach  of  contract.  This  situation  lasted  for  eight  weeks, 
and  at  times  the  outlook  became  extremely  threatening, 
for  the  Italians  chafed  under  the  unexpected  opposition 
they  had  encountered.  Suddenly  the  dispute  collapsed  and 
the  Italians  sullenly  returned  to  their  work. 

Coupled  with  this  distressing  condition  of  affairs  at  the 
railhead,  the  engineers  experienced  grave  difficulties  at 
Swakopmund.  They  could  not  get  the  constructional  and 
other  material  unloaded  from  their  ships.  This  harbour  is 
notoriously  a  bad  one,  and  being  congested  with  military 
traffic,  method  and  order  had  given  way  to  complete  chaos. 
Weeks  elapsed  before  an  incoming  ship  could  discharge 
its  cargo  for  the  railway,  and  then  the  engineers  only 
secured  their  requirements  by  building  a  special  mole 
because  the  anchorage  was  silting  up  with  sand. 

In  the  spring  of  1905  matters  took  a  more  hopeful  turn. 
The  sullen  Italians  were  spurred  on  by  the  granting  of 
premiums,  and  under  this  inducement  more  rapid  progress 
was  effected.  The  white  workmen  were  forced  to  their 
tasks  by  the  appearance  of  severe  competition.  Many  of 
the  Hereros  grew  tired  of  fighting  and  surrendered  to  the 
authorities.  When  asked  if  they  would  be  content  to  work 
upon  the  railway  they  accepted  the  offer  with  alacrity,  and 
the  Italians  saw  that  they  were  in  serious  danger  of  being 
displaced  entirely.  The  fair  treatment  that  was  meted  out 
to  the  natives  who  had  surrendered  became  noised  far  and 
wide  through  the  country,  with  the  result  that  large 
numbers  of  Hereros,  who  had  grasped  the  hopelessness 
of  their  opposition,  made  their  way  to  the  railhead  and 
threw  down  their  arms  and  offered  to  take  up  the  pick 
and  shovel.  It  was  a  curious  sight,  for  here  were  large 
numbers  of  the  natives,  against  whom  war  was  being 
waged,  voluntarily  assisting  in  the  advance  of  the  very 
force  that  was  being  driven  forward  to  bring  about  the 
complete  subjugation  of  their  race.  Curious  to  relate, 
moreover,  the  engineers  found  that  their  former  implacable 


THE   LONGEST   "TOY"   RAILWAY  85 

foes,  when  properly  treated,  developed  into  splendid  con- 
scientious workmen,  and  far  easier  to  control  than  the 
much-vaunted  white  labour. 

After  leaving  the  coast  the  railway  makes  practically  a 
continuous  and  steady  climb  to  a  maximum  height  of  some 
5,218  feet  in  the  course  of  its  360  miles.  Notwithstanding 
this  extreme  difference  in  altitude,  it  was  found  possible 
to  keep  the  banks  easy,  the  sharpest  gradient  being  i  in 
50.  The  country  traversed  is  most  inhospitable,  the  first 
145  miles  being  through  a  wild  desert,  and  wide  stretches 
of  scrub-covered  country  broken  with  kopjes.  Extensive 
bridging  was  found  necessary  to  carry  the  track  across 
gullies  and  rivulets,  there  being  in  all  no  of  these 
structures.  They  are  built  throughout  of  steel,  the  deck- 
plate  girder  type  being  the  most  generally  favoured,  and 
the  most  important  work  of  this  class  has  a  length  of  333 
feet,  built  up  in  five  spans.  The  curves  were  kept  as  easy 
as  possible,  the  standard  radius  being  about  500  feet. 
Here  and  there,  however,  owing  to  the  cramped  conditions 
of  the  route  open  to  the  track,  it  was  found  requisite  to 
reduce  the  radius  to  some  270  feet  in  order  to  avoid  heavy 
and  expensive  cutting  through  rocks  and  hills. 

Some  idea  of  the  extent  to  which  the  engineers  were 
delayed  by  their  repeated  differences  with  the  Italian 
workmen  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  although 
23  months  were  occupied  in  carrying  the  rails  from 
Swakopmund  to  Omaruru,  a  matter  of  145  miles,  the 
second  section,  from  the  latter  point  to  Tsumeb,  the  present 
terminus,  a  matter  of  215  miles,  required  but  another  year. 
When  the  railway  was  rushed  onwards  from  Omaruru, 
although  the  country  to  be  crossed  was  somewhat  easier 
from  the  physical  point  of  view,  and  lent  itself  to  more 
rapid  construction,  acceleration  was  attributable  in  the 
main  to  the  ample  supply  of  labour  available  and  absence 
of  trouble  with  the  workmen  engaged. 

Another  grave  difficulty  against  which  the  builders  had 
to  struggle  was  water.  In  fact,  it  might  be  said  that  the 
scarcity  of  this  commodity  was  more  perplexing  than  those 


86      RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF    THE    WORLD 

governing  the  labour,  strikes  notwithstanding.  It  was  not 
merely  securing  sufficient  supplies  for  the  workmen's 
needs,  but  also  for  constructional  purposes,  such  as  for 
the  locomotive  boilers,  mixing  of  concrete  for  masonry, 
and  so  forth.  On  the  first  section  every  pint  of  drinking 
water  had  to  be  brought  up  from  the  base  on  the  coast 
to  the  railhead,  and  as  this  advanced  the  difficulties 
concerned  with  its  transportation  increased.  In  some 
instances  bullock-carts  were  the  only  vehicles  that  could 
be  pressed  into  service  for  its  conveyance  over  30  or  40 
miles.  Throughout  the  first  85  miles  from  Swakopmund 
to  Usakos  not  a  drop  could  be  drawn  from  the  earth. 
Innumerable  borings  in  search  of  the  liquid  were  made 
alongside  the  line  as  it  progressed,  but  they  were  rewarded 
with  no  material  success.  Occasionally  small  quantities 
were  found,  but  it  was  too  brackish  and  quite  unfit  for 
drinking  purposes.  When  Usakos  was  gained  the  situa- 
tion was  eased  somewhat  by  a  local  discovery,  but  the 
water  had  to  be  softened  before  it  could  be  used  by  the 
engines,  and  accordingly  a  plant  for  treating  the  water  in 
this  manner  had  to  be  brought  up  country  and  erected. 
This,  however,  was  useless  for  domestic  purposes,  and 
when  the  line  was  pushed  on  from  Omaruru,  special  water 
trains  had  to  be  run  for  the  convenience  of  the  workmen. 
Huge  tanks  were  laden  on  the  cars  and  were  carried  from 
the  coast  to  the  railhead,  the  journey  occupying  several 
hours.  The  trouble  and  expense  involved  in  connection 
with  this  vital  requisite  influenced  the  cost  and  time 
occupied  in  building  the  line  very  unfavourably,  so  much 
so  indeed,  that  the  preliminary  estimates  of  the  cost  were 
exceeded  very  markedly. 

This  question  has  not  been  solved  satisfactorily  yet,  and 
it  will  remain  to  puzzle  the  administration  of  the  line  until 
some  conveniently-situated  subterranean  water  supply  is 
tapped  on  the  barren  veldt.  The  load  of  every  train  has 
to  be  increased  by  a  special  tank-tender  coupled  behind 
the  engine  containing  2,200  gallons  of  water,  which  repre- 
sents so  much  unremunerative  load. 


THE   LONGEST   "TOY"   RAILWAY  87 

The  rolling-stock  is  quite  in  keeping  with  this  diminutive 
railway.  The  tiny  engines  have  driving-wheels  24  inches 
in  diameter,  while  the  cylinders  have  a  diameter  of  12 
inches  and  a  stroke  of  17!  inches.  Yet  they  can  haul  a 
load  of  100  tons  at  a  speed  of  25  miles  an  hour  on  the 
level  and  at  9^  miles  an  hour  on  the  steepest  banks  of  i 
in  50. 

This  appears  to  be  a  mere  crawl  in  comparison  with  the 
speeds  with  which  we  are  familiar  on  the  standard  railways. 
But  when  one  recalls  the  manner  in  which  this  little  utoy" 
line  has  changed  conditions  of  travel  in  a  lonely  corner 
of  the  African  continent,  and  the  former  rate  of  progress 
possible  by  bullock-cart,  even  9^  miles  an  hour  appears 
to  be  an  amazing  speed.  Before  the  iron  horse  appeared 
in  German  South- West  Africa,  to  travel  from  Swakop- 
mund  to  Omaruru,  a  mere  145  miles,  was  a  heroic  achieve- 
ment, entailing  a  laborious  slow  tramp  through  lonely 
sterile  wastes  of  boulders  and  scrub.  A  pace  of  7  or  10 
miles  a  day  was  considered  fast  travelling,  and  one  who 
covered  the  journey  in  a  fortnight  was  considered  to  have 
driven  hard.  To-day  the  same  distance  can  be  reeled  off 
in  about  12  hours. 


CHAPTER    VII 

THE   WONDERS    OF   THE   TYROL 

PROBABLY  there  is  no  country  in  Europe  wherein  are 
compressed  so  many  and  such  varied  marvels  of  engineer- 
ing executed  in  connection  with  the  building  of  the  iron 
road  as  in  Austria.  As  is  well  known,  the  country  is 
a  sea  of  towering  rugged  mountains,  with  steep  slopes, 
knotted  by  crags  and  scarred  by  deep  gullies,  intersected 
by  broad  sylvan  valleys. 

Such  topographical  conditions  impose  a  severe  tax  upon 
the  skill  and  resources  of  the  engineer.  Consequently  this 
territory  has  been  the  scene  of  many  grim  grapples  with 
Nature — some  in  which  the  odds  have  been  overwhelm- 
ingly against  the  engineers,  and  in  which  success  has  been 
achieved  only  by  dogged  perseverance.  Conspicuous  in 
this  direction  are  the  wonderful  tunnels. 

It  was  the  successful  piercing  of  the  Mont  Cenis  and 
St.  Gotthard  tunnels  that  first  spurred  the  Austrian 
engineers  to  work  of  this  character.  Their  first  attempt, 
the  boring  of  the  Arlberg,  was  such  a  conspicuous  success 
that  they  did  not  hesitate  afterwards  to  have  recourse  to 
such  methods  when  all  other  means  appeared  impractic- 
able. To-day  the  country  can  point  to  four  huge  Alpine 
tunnels  which  stand  among  the  foremost  achievements  of 
their  class  in  the  world.  Such  ways  and  means  for  forcing 
the  iron  road  from  one  point  to  another  are  highly  expen- 
sive, but  in  each  instance  the  ends  have  justified  the  means. 
By  their  provision,  points  only  a  few  miles  apart  as  the 
crow  flies,  and  which  with  surface  railways  could  have  been 
connected  only  by  wearying,  devious  routes,  have  been 
brought  into  close  communication. 

When  the  Arlberg  chain  was  taken  in  hand,  the  pre- 
liminary surveys  showed  that  it  would  approximate  seven 

88 


THE   WONDERS   OF  THE  TYROL  89 

miles  in  length,  and  that  about  the  centre  of  the  tunnel  a 
solid  mass  of  rock,  1,600  feet  in  thickness,  would  extend 
from  the  roof  and  track  to  the  storm-swept  mountain  pass 
overhead. 

At  this  time  the  two  previous  projects  of  this  character 
had  proved  so  costly,  had  occupied  such  a  long  time,  and 
had  entailed  the  grappling  with  technical  difficulties  such 
as  never  had  been  encountered  before,  that  the  idea  of 
tunnelling  the  Arlberg  was  entertained  with  mixed  feelings. 
But  Julius  Lott,  the  engineer-in-chief,  was  not  to  be  dis- 
suaded from  his  enterprise.  He  maintained  that  it  could 
be  accomplished  far  more  quickly  and  cheaply  than  had 
been  the  Cenis  or  Gotthard  works.  True,  it  was  not  to  be 
quite  so  long  as  either  of  the  latter  undertakings,  but 
similar  difficulties,  if  not  others  more  perplexing,  might 
lurk  buried  there  in  the  heart  of  the  crest.  The  engineer 
was  urged  in  his  decision  by  the  perfection  of  a  new  boring 
implement  which  had  been  evolved  during  the  final  stages 
of  the  Gotthard  tunnel.  Although  the  circumstances  there 
did  not  enable  the  new  invention  to  demonstrate  its  possi- 
bilities to  the  full,  yet  what  had  been  done  sufficed  to  show 
that  the  new  tool  was  destined  to  revolutionise  the  methods 
adopted  in  such  huge  boring  operations. 

This  was  the  Brandt  rock-drill,  a  wonderful  appliance 
which  in  one  stroke  displaced  incalculable  manual  labour. 
The  tool  is  operated  by  water  pressure,  and  the  drill 
ploughs  its  way  into  the  rock  under  a  rotary  movement 
in  much  the  same  manner  as  an  auger  forces  its  way 
through  a  piece  of  wood.  The  water  pressure  brought  to 
bear  upon  the  drill  is  tremendous,  ranging  from  1,400  to 
i, 680  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  even  the  hardest  rock 
scarcely  can  resist  its  attack. 

But,  as  may  be  supposed,  at  times  the  hard  texture  of 
the  rock  played  sad  havoc  with  the  cutting  edge  of  the 
drill.  Occasionally  three  or  four  drills  were  put  out  of 
service  with  every  yard  of  advance,  and  even  then  progress 
was  painfully  slow.  When,  however,  soft  rock  was  encoun- 
tered the  tool  cleaved  its  way  through  very  rapidly,  the 


9o      RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF    THE    WORLD 

cutter  biting  half-an-inch  or  more  into  the  material  with 
every  revolution.  Then  it  was  found  possible  to  speed  up 
the  rotations  to  as  many  as  seven  or  eight  per  minute,  with 
proportionate  increase  of  life  for  the  cutting  edge. 

Precisely  what  this  Brandt  drill  signified  to  the  engineers 
in  connection  with  this  tunnel  may  be  gathered  from  the 
fact  that  from  the  time  drilling  commenced,  in  1880,  only 
four  years  elapsed  before  communication  was  established 
between  Bluden  on  the  one  and  Innsbruck  on  the  other 
side  of  the  range.  In  this  short  period  a  passage  26  feet 
high  by  23  feet  wide  was  cut  through  solid  rock  for  a 
distance  of  6|  miles  at  a  total  cost  of  ;£  1,500,000,  or 
$7,500,000.  In  comparison  with  the  two  previous  enter- 
prises of  the  same  character  this  was  a  magnificent  achieve- 
ment. The  Cenis  tunnel,  7^  miles  in  length,  occupied 
some  13  years  to  complete,  while  some  8  years  were  required 
to  drive  Q£  miles  through  the  St.  Gotthard.  This  was  an 
achievement  of  which  those  engaged  in  the  task  were  justly 
proud.  Indeed,  the  Austrians  hold  a  unique  position  in 
the  rapidity  with  which  they  can  drive  these  gigantic  under- 
takings through  the  most  formidable  mountain  chains. 

The  section  of  railway  upon  which  this  tunnel  is  situated 
sorely  tried  the  ingenuity  of  the  engineers  up  to  the 
Paznaun  valley.  The  line  clings  to  the  mountain-side, 
which  is  broken  up  by  precipitous  crags,  and  these  either 
had  to  be  pierced  or  blasted  right  away  to  provide  a  path 
for  the  railway.  Gushing  torrents  pour  madly  down  these 
slopes,  and  had  to  be  spanned  by  noble  and  lofty  viaducts 
or  bridges.  At  some  places  the  boiling  waters  are  deflected 
from  their  bed  into  an  artificial  channel  built  of  concrete ; 
at  others  there  are  massive  retaining  walls  to  prevent  the 
waterways  from  breaking  bounds  and  sweeping  the  em- 
bankment away.  One  wide  gorge  is  bridged  by  a  single 
iron  span  393  feet  8  inches  in  length.  This  is  the  Trisanna 
viaduct,  below  which  the  glacial  brook  tumbles  over  the 
boulders  at  a  depth  of  some  262  feet.  Elaborate  precautions 
also  had  to  be  adopted  to  protect  the  line  from  the  ravages 
of  avalanches  and  landslides. 


THE   WONDERS   OF   THE   TYROL  91 

Years  before  the  Arlberg  line  was  contemplated,  how- 
ever, some  distinctly  noteworthy  achievements  in  engineer- 
ing had  been  placed  on  record  by  the  establishment  of 
railway  communication  between  Vienna  and  Trieste  on 
the  Adriatic  Sea.  Certainly  the  line  did  not  follow  the 
shortest  route  between  these  two  points,  but  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  it  was  undertaken  in  the  early  'forties, 
when  Great  Britain,  "the  home  of  the  railway,"  only 
possessed  some  840  miles  of  line,  and  railway  engineering 
was  quite  in  its  infancy.  It  is  little  wonder,  therefore, 
that  the  engineers  of  the  project  in  this  wild  corner  of 
Europe  followed  a  circuitous  path,  to  avoid  fearsome 
obstacles  as  far  as  practicable.  They  resorted  to  sharp 
curves  and  heavy  banks,  and  the  line  doubled  and  re- 
doubled in  the  most  amazing  manner.  Bridges  and  tunnels 
were  introduced  very  freely,  some  of  the  viaducts  spanning 
deep  clefts  on  the  mountain  flanks  being  very  lofty. 

By  the  most  direct  route  of  this  system  the  journey  from 
the  Austrian  capital  to  Trieste  occupies  nine  hours.  In 
that  journey,  comparatively  no  longer  than  that  entailed 
in  speeding  over  the  greater  distance  separating  London 
from  Edinburgh,  one  passes  through  four  distinct  expanses 
of  scenery.  Vienna  nestles  in  a  broad  valley  flanked  on  all 
sides  by  the  towering  snow-topped  Alps.  The  line,  upon 
leaving  the  capital,  first  traverses  the  undulating  foot-hills, 
then  wends  its  way  through  the  mountains  to  gain  the 
richly  wooded,  verdant  and  beautiful  country  of  Styria, 
and  finally  passes  over  a  vast  stretch  of  wilderness  to 
descend  abruptly  to  the  coast. 

In  forging  this  link  in  the  railway  chain  the  engineers 
had  to  overcome  the  Semmering  range,  which  is  amongst 
the  most  tumbled  in  the  whole  of  the  Austrian  Alps.  How 
did  they  do  it  ?  By  following  the  natural  facilities  open  to 
them  :  a  ledge  here,  a  gallery  there ;  passing  from  this 
slope  to  that  by  a  viaduct  or  bridge ;  zigzagging  up  the 
mountain  slopes ;  tunnelling  through  rocky  eminences  ; 
following  winding  paths  for  miles  merely  to  gain  points 
only  a  mile  or  two  apart  in  a  straight  line.  No  doubt  if  that 


92     RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

line  were  built  to-day  it  would  have  its  length  cut  in  half, 
for  railway  engineering  has  advanced  by  leaps  and  bounds 
since  1848,  when  this  pioneer  project  was  taken  in  hand. 

In  carrying  their  scheme  to  fulfilment  these  early 
engineers  unconsciously  achieved  one  notable  distinction  : 
they  built  the  first  mountain  railway.  What  matter  if 
banks  did  assume  a  rise  of  132  feet  or  so  per  mile,  and  the 
line  did  wander  in  apparent  aimlessness  among  the  peaks  ? 
Speed  then  was  not  the  vital  consideration  it  is  to-day, 
while  traffic  was  comparatively  light,  so  that  the  haulage 
facilities  were  not  taxed  severely. 

This  mountain  climb  on  the  main  line  occurs  between 
Gloggnitz  and  Murzzuschlag,  the  famous  winter  sporting 
centre  in  the  Tyrol.  The  mountain  crest  is  4,577  feet  above 
the  sea-level,  but  the  railway  does  not  rise  to  that  height; 
its  summit  is  at  2,940  feet  in  the  middle  of  a  tunnel  three- 
quarters  of  a  mile  in  length  beneath  the  Semmering  Pass. 
But  to  gain  that  altitude  from  either  side  of  the  mountain 
entailed  prodigious  work.  Pick,  shovel,  and  gunpowder 
made  heavy  cuttings  through  projecting  spurs,  raised  lofty 
embankments,  filled  gaping  fissures,  and  cleaved  galleries 
out  of  the  solid  rock.  The  two  points  on  either  side  of 
the  mountain  are  only  fourteen  miles  apart  in  a  straight 
line;  by  the  railway  it  is  more  than  twice  the  distance,  the 
outstanding  features  which  were  necessary  to  render  the 
undertaking  un  fait  accompli  being  fifteen  tunnels,  and  a 
score  of  viaducts  and  bridges.  To  construct  the  thirty 
miles  over  the  Semmering  cost  a  round  .£2,000,000,  or 
$10,000,000,  in  money,  and  occupied  between  three  and 
four  years  to  complete. 

With  the  march  of  time,  however,  the  traffic  over  this 
railway  increased,  hand  in  hand  with  the  expansion  of 
Trieste,  to  such  an  extent  that  it  proved  inadequate.  A 
more  direct  route  between  the  capital  and  the  port,  as  well 
as  accelerated  communication  with  the  great  centres  of 
Europe,  was  demanded  by  the  commercial  community. 
This  agitation  became  so  insistent  that  at  last  the  govern- 
ment was  compelled  to  move,  and  the  engineer  of  the 


THE    WORKMEN    CUTTING   AND    BLASTING   A    NARROW   PATH    ON    THE 
STEEP    MOUNTAIN    SLOPES    FOR   THE    KARAWANKEN    RAILWAY 


THE   WONDERS   OF   THE  TYROL  93 

Imperial  Railways  was  commissioned  to  survey  the  country 
for  the  purpose  of  devising  some  scheme  which  would 
satisfy  the  public  outcry. 

This  was  no  easy  task.  Innumerable  knots  of  moun- 
tains break  up  the  country  between  Vienna  and  the  Adriatic, 
and  they  are  compressed  so  tightly  together  that  the  narrow 
valleys  between  offered  but  slight  assistance  towards  the 
solution  of  the  problem.  Then,  again,  those  three  well- 
known  mountain  ranges,  the  Tauern,  Karawanken,  and 
Julian  Alps,  stood  right  in  the  way,  disputing  any  possibly 
shorter  route  than  that  already  in  existence. 

The  prospect  before  the  surveyors  was  not  very  promis- 
ing. However,  they  braved  the  elements  among  the  inhos- 
pitable peaks,  suffered  extreme  privations  and  fatigue  as 
they  toiled  up  and  down  the  rugged,  wild  mountain  slopes 
with  their  instruments,  for  month  after  month.  At  last 
they  succeeded  in  formulating  a  project  which  was  sub- 
mitted to  Parliament.  In  this  it  was  proposed  to  make 
avail  of  any  favourable  stretches  of  existing  railways  which 
intersected  the  valleys  in  all  directions,  and  to  connect  them 
together,  so  that  in  the  end  a  tolerably  direct  route  might 
be  obtained.  At  any  rate  this  proposal  would  reduce  the 
journey  between  the  Adriatic  and  Munich  by  at  least  eleven 
hours.  The  scheme  was  divided  into  four  broad  sections. 
It  was  discussed  thoroughly  in  Parliament,  but  in  the  end 
it  was  decided  to  carry  out  in  the  first  instance  the  most 
essential  parts  of  the  project,  because  embarkation  upon 
the  undertakings  as  set  forth  by  the  engineers  would  have 
entailed  the  expenditure  of  a  gigantic  sum  of  money.  Even 
that  which  was  sanctioned  represented  a  total  financial 
commitment  of  about  ^30,000,000,  or  $150,000,000,  for 
21 1 J  miles  of  line. 

The  accepted  enterprise  was  memorable  because  it 
entailed  the  piercing  of  three  mountain  ranges  by  tunnels 
5j,  5,  and  4  miles  in  length  respectively.  Of  the  total 
mileage  only  41 J  miles  were  to  be  level !  The  remaining 
170  miles  represented  banks,  with  grades  running  as  high 
as  132  feet  to  the  mile. 


94     RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

The  project  as  sanctioned  was  divided  into  three  sections 
for  constructional  purposes.  The  first  section  is  that  known 
as  the  Pyrhn  railway,  which  connects  the  main  line  between 
Vienna  and  Switzerland  via  the  Arlberg  tunnel  at  Linz. 
From  this  point  a  short  branch  line  ran  directly  southwards 
through  the  Krems  valley  to  Klaus,  having  been  built  for 
tourist  purposes.  It  was  decided  to  overhaul  this  spur  to 
bring  it  into  conformity  with  the  conditions  of  a  main  line, 
and  to  build  the  new  line  onwards  from  Klaus. 

From  Auspoint,  which  is  at  an  altitude  of  1,563  feet,  the 
line  makes  one  continual  climb,  climb,  to  the  Selzthai 
terminus,  nearly  40  miles  distant.  The  average  rise  ranges 
from  70  to  132  feet  per  mile  to  overcome  the  Pyrhn  Pass, 
beneath  which  a  tunnel  nearly  3  miles  in  length  was  bored. 
This  tunnel,  however,  is  only  one  of  many,  for  there  are 
numerous  short  burrows  through  shoulders  and  crags. 
Nor  are  the  bridges  a  whit  less  majestic.  The  Steyr  River 
is  crossed  by  a  lofty  single  masonry  arch,  and  again  lower 
down  by  an  iron  suspension  structure,  while  the  Teichl  is 
spanned  by  a  single-span  lattice  steel  bridge.  The  lofti- 
ness of  these  structures  is  an  outstanding  characteristic. 
The  rivers  at  the  points  in  question  have  cut  their  beds  at 
a  great  depth  below  the  banks  which  constitute  the  railway 
level.  Swerving  bends  are  also  conspicuous,  for  the  railway 
continually  swings  from  one  side  of  the  valley  to  the  other. 

The  construction  of  the  Pyrhn  railway,  however,  was 
simple  in  comparison  with  the  other  links  of  this  chain  of 
communication.  At  Klagenfurt,  south-east  of  Vienna, 
commences  the  Karawanken  railway,  so  named  because 
it  pierces  the  difficult  mountain  range  of  that  name.  The 
stretch  is  only  19  miles  in  length,  but  the  country  proved 
to  be  so  broken  that  only  4  miles  of  level  track  could  be 
introduced,  and  those  in  the  vicinity  of  the  stations ! 
Throughout  the  remaining  15  miles  the  railway  is  really 
a  gigantic  switchback. 

The  line  hugs  the  hill-sides,  and  has  to  make  the  rough 
descent  of  the  broken  Hollenburger  in  order  to  gain  the 
level  of  the  Drave  River,  to  pass  between  the  Stattnitz  on 


THE   WONDERS   OF   THE   TYROL  95 

the  northern  and  the  Karawanken  chains  on  the  southern 
side  of  the  depression.  The  mountain-side  is  steep  and 
broken  in  the  extreme.  In  all  directions  gullies  extended, 
where  the  soft  earth  had  been  washed  away  by  the  violence 
of  the  snow  freshets.  These  had  to  be  rilled  in  with  solid, 
heavy  embankments,  the  debris  for  which  was  torn  from 
deep  cuttings  through  projecting  humps  of  rock.  Some  of 
the  gaps  were  too  wide  and  deep  to  be  overcome  in  this 
summary  manner,  and  had  to  be  bridged.  The  Hollen- 
burger  viaduct  stands  out  prominently  among  works  of 
this  kind.  From  end  to  end  it  measures  262^  feet  in 
length,  and  in  the  centre  the  rift  is  92  feet  below  the  level 
of  the  rails.  The  mountains  sheer  up  precipitously  on  the 
one,  and  the  beautiful  valley  of  the  Rosenbach  falls  away 
on  the  other,  side  of  the  track. 

Gaining  the  river-bank,  the  line  sweeps  across  the  water- 
way by  a  majestic  lofty  iron  bridge  656  feet  in  length. 
Gaining  the  opposite  bank,  it  plunges  among  the  well- 
wooded  slopes  of  the  Karawanken  belt  of  mountains,  effect- 
ing a  good  climb  up  and  down  towards  the  Rosenbach 
valley,  which  is  crossed  by  means  of  a  long  viaduct,  con- 
sisting of  four  arched  masonry  spans  each  24  feet  and  three 
steel  spans  of  177  feet  apiece,  at  a  height  of  170  feet. 

The  ascent  is  heavy,  as  the  objective  is  the  northern 
entrance  to  the  Karawanken  tunnel,  which  burrows  through 
the  range  for  a  distance  of  five  miles.  The  piercing  of  this 
subterranean  passage  excited  considerable  attention.  The 
Austrian  engineers  who  had  achieved  such  a  triumph  in 
the  rapid  boring  of  the  Arlberg  upheld  their  reputation  as 
accomplished  masters  in  this  phase  of  railway-building, 
notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  rocky  mass  was  found  to 
be  of  such  unstable  character  that  the  tunnel  had  to  be 
lined  from  end  to  end. 

The  task  was  taken  in  hand  shortly  after  the  Austrian 
Government  sanctioned  these  railways  in  1901.  Boring 
was  carried  out  simultaneously  from  each  end.  The  ground 
around  each  portal  was  quickly  cleared,  and  when  the  work 
was  in  full  swing  6000  men  found  employment.  The  first 


96     RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

step  was  to  secure  power  to  furnish  the  energy  to  operate 
the  variety  of  mechanical  appliances  that  were  necessary 
to  dislodge  and  transport  the  rock,  as  well  as  to  dispel  the 
Cimmerian  gloom  in  the  heart  of  the  mountain.  There  was 
a  small  waterfall  six  miles  from  the  proposed  southern 
mouth  of  the  tunnel,  with  a  drop  of  35  feet,  and  capable  of 
furnishing  some  900  horse-power.  This  picturesque  Alpine 
cascade  was  harnessed  and  compelled  to  drive  turbines  and 
dynamos  to  generate  electricity,  which  was  transmitted  by 
overhead  wires  for  six  miles  to  the  boring  works  at  the 
tunnel  entrance.  Here  the  current  was  pressed  into  a 
multitude  of  services,  not  the  least  important  of  which  was 
the  driving  of  the  huge  fans,  whereby  a  great  volume  of 
clean,  pure,  cool  air  was  swept  in  a  steady  stream  through 
the  shaft  to  strike  against  the  wall  of  rock  upon  which  the 
drillers  were  concentrating  their  energies,  displacing  the 
atmosphere  contaminated  by  the  fumes  of  the  dynamite 
blasting,  grime  and  dust.  Moreover,  the  temperature, 
which  rapidly  rose  as  the  heart  of  the  mountain  was  pene- 
trated, was  tempered  pleasantly  by  the  incoming  currents, 
so  that  the  fatigue  of  toiling  in  the  blackness  and  confined 
space  was  reduced. 

On  the  northern  side  of  the  tunnel  similar  arrangements 
were  laid  down.  In  this  instance,  however,  the  electricity, 
obtained  by  harnessing  two  small  waterfalls,  had  to  operate 
wonderful  electric  drills  which  were  used  at  this  end  for 
boring  into  the  rock — on  the  southern  side  hydraulic  and 
pneumatic  drills  were  employed.  The  working  face  in  the 
tunnel  was  illuminated  brilliantly  by  electric  light,  so  that 
the  drillers  laboured  under  conditions  vastly  dissimilar  to 
those  which  prevailed  when  the  first  Alpine  tunnel  was 
driven.  As  the  top  of  the  tunnel  was  cut  out  the  roof  was 
shored  up  with  heavy  timbering,  and  hard  on  the  tracks 
of  the  excavators  came  the  stonemasons,  cutting,  trim- 
ming, and  setting  the  masonry  lining  into  position.  The 
work  was  so  planned  that  the  actual  progress  per  day 
should  be  thirteen  lineal  feet,  and  although  at  times  the 
calculations  were  somewhat  upset  by  something  unforeseen 


THE  TAUERN  RAILWAY,  SHOWING  WINDING  CHARACTER  OF  THE  LINE 


THE  ENTRANCE  TO  THE  TAUERN  TUNNEL, 

Five  and  a  quarter  miles  in  length,  which  occupied  five  years  to  bore  through  the  range 

RAILWAY   BUILDING   IN   THE    TYROL 


THE   WONDERS   OF  THE   TYROL  97 

being  encountered,  yet,  taken  on  the  whole,  the  average 
was  well  maintained.  Commenced  in  June  1902,  the  moun- 
tain chain  was  pierced  and  ready  for  the  double  line  of  rails 
by  November  1905,  so  that  the  work  had  been  carried  out 
very  smartly  indeed. 

Emerging  from  the  tunnel,  the  line  once  more  becomes 
a  single  track,  and  issues  into  the  Wurzner  Save  valley, 
the  descent  continuing  until  Assling,  the  terminus  of  the 
Karawanken  railway,  is  reached,  this  point  being  151  feet 
below  the  southern  mouth  of  the  tunnel.  Here  a  connection 

v 

is  formed  with  the  next  link  in  the  chain,  this  being  the 
"  Wochenier "  section,  which  runs  to  the  shores  of  the 
Adriatic  at  Trieste. 

But  before  the  latter  terminal  is  gained  another  mountain 
mass  has  to  be  penetrated — the  Julian  Alps.  It  is  a  mean- 
dering line  in  very  truth,  for  the  configuration  of  the 
country  prevented  more  than  short  pieces  of  straight  track 
being  sandwiched  here  and  there  between  sweeping  curves, 
elaborate  winds,  stiff  ascents  and  descents — in  fact,  the 
longest  piece  of  straight  line  is  only  of  6,600  feet  in  the 
first  55  miles.  In  running  from  Assling  to  the  seaboard 
28  tunnels  are  threaded,  exclusive  of  the  Wochenier,  which 
is  4  miles  long,  15  bridges  and  30  viaducts  are  crossed, 
while  the  cuttings  and  embankments  are  innumerable.  The 
railway  traverses  some  of  the  most  romantic  and  wildest 
scenery  in  the  whole  Alpine  chain,  especially  as  it 
approaches  the  southernmost  clump  of  these  mountains. 

On  this  section  the  engineers  accomplished  an  unparal- 
leled engineering  feat.  The  narrow  Isonzo  gorge  had  to 
be  crossed,  and  it  was  effected  by  throwing  a  single  span 
from  one  bank  to  the  other,  a  matter  of  733  feet.  This  is 
trie  longest  single-arch  masonry  bridge  in  the  world,  and 
the  rail-level  is  120  feet  above  the  level  of  the  water.  As 
the  coast  is  approached  the  windings  of  the  line  become 
more  tortuous,  while  the  bridging,  owipg  to  the  numerous 
rivers,  is  terrific.  When  at  last  Opcina  tunnel  is  pene- 
trated2  the  Adriatic  is  seen  spread  out  in  a  vast  panorama 
1000  feet  below. 


98     RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

To  descend  the  mountain  slopes  with  an  easy  grade  for 
a  distance  of  ten  miles  was  a  stiff  problem.  In  order  to  do 
so  the  engineers  had  to  carry  the  track  in  the  form  of 
elaborate  saw-like  loops.  Heavy  gradients  could  not  be 
avoided,  and  this  part  of  the  line  is  one  of  the  steepest  and 
most  trying  to  the  locomotives. 

Though  these  sections  of  the  railway  had  proved  difficult 
to  carry  out,  it  was  the  Tauern  link  in  the  chain  that  tried 
the  energy  and  ingenuity  of  the  engineers  to  the  supreme 
degree,  for  on  this  stretch  of  railway  the  mighty  Tauern 
group  of  mountains  had  to  be  negotiated.  Surveys  showed 
that  to  pierce  this  clump  involved  the  boring  of  a  tunnel 
for  a  distance  of  five  miles  at  least.  They  proved  the 
hardest  five  miles  in  the  whole  undertaking;  the  piercing 
of  the  Karawanken  and  Wochenier  tunnels  sank  into  insig- 
nificance by  comparison,  for  this  knot  of  the  Alps  was 
found  to  be  formed  of  much  sterner  rock.  Granite  gneiss, 
one  of  the  hardest  substances  against  which  it  is  possible 
to  bring  the  edge  of  a  drill,  made  progress  provokingly 
slow.  At  times,  when  the  hand  drills  had  to  be  used,  an 
advance  of  two  feet  in  the  course  of  twenty-four  hours  was 
considered  excellent.  The  Brandt  hydraulic  drills,  how- 
ever, with  the  enormous  energy  behind  them,  made  the 
task  somewhat  lighter,  for  they  moved  through  the  hardest 
rock  at  a  rate  of  about  seventeen  feet  every  day,  with 
occasional  spurts  of  a  foot  per  hour. 

In  this  undertaking,  however,  many  misfortunes  served 
to  delay  progress.  The  task  had  barely  commenced,  when 
a  flood  destroyed  part  of  the  works  at  the  northern  end. 
The  river  whose  water  had  been  harnessed  had  been 
deviated  from  its  accustomed  path,  because  it  flowed  over 
the  roof  of  the  tunnel.  As  the  engineers  had  no  desire  to 
invite  an  inundation  by  tapping  the  bed  of  the  river  water- 
way, they  had  provided  it  with  a  new  channel.  Heavy 
snows  and  rains,  however,  so  swelled  the  volume  of  the 
diverted  river  that  it  broke  through  its  artificial  bonds  to 
resume  its  original  course.  The  result  was  that,  owing  to 
the  crust  of  earth  between  the  old  bed  and  the  roof  of  the 


THE   WONDERS   OF  THE   TYROL  99 

tunnel   being   so   thin,    the   water   crashed   through,    and 
poured  into  the  tunnel  in  an  immense  cascade. 

The  men  abandoned  everything  hurriedly,  and  rushed 
madly  for  their  lives  from  the  incoming  avalanche  of  water. 
For  days  the  tunnel  was  absolutely  inaccessible.  Not  con- 
tent with  flooding  the  workings,  the  impetuous  torrent 
completed  its  devastation  by  sweeping  away  many  of  the 
supports  to  the  line  conveying  the  water  to  the  drills  under 
a  pressure  of  1,500  pounds  per  square  inch,  leaving  the 
slender  conduit  of  this  great  force  hanging  in  graceful 
festoons  in  mid-air.  Some  of  these  gaps  were  as  much  as 
260  feet  in  width,  and  had  a  break  in  the  pipe  occurred 
widespread  damage  would  have  been  caused.  But  the 
engineers  set  to  work,  and  reconstructed  the  temporary 
dam  that  had  thus  been  torn  roughly  away  and  rebuilt  the 
river's  new  channel.  At  the  same  time  they  adopted  such 
precautions  as  would  preclude  the  possibility  of  the  water- 
way again  inundating  the  tunnel  in  times  of  the  most 
severe  floods. 

Such  incidents,  however,  are  inherent  to  works  of  this 
character.  The  inundation  was  but  one  means  adopted  by 
Nature  to  thwart  the  advance  of  the  iron  road.  Work  had 
scarcely  been  resumed,  when  another  disaster  occurred. 
The  drills  were  whirring  merrily  against  the  rock  face  in 
the  tunnel,  and  the  drillers  were  light-heartedly  conversing 
with  one  another  as  they  fed  the  boring  giant  in  its  rock- 
penetrating  task.  Suddenly  there  was  a  cry  of  alarm. 
Water  was  trickling  rapidly  from  a  bore-hole ;  it  rapidly 
increased  in  volume.  The  drillers  hurriedly  withdrew  their 
tools  and  backed  down  the  cavern.  There  was  a  roar,  and 
a  limpid  stream  burst  from  the  rock  face.  The  drillers 
stampeded ;  they  had  tapped  a  subterranean  spring,  and  it 
was  now  rushing  forth  with  fiendish  violence.  The 
engineers  hastened  to  the  front.  Such  a  contingency  had 
been  expected,  for  such  incidents  are  inseparable  from 
tunnelling  tasks  of  this  magnitude.  The  rushing  stream 
was  turned  into  one  of  the  conduits  at  the  side  to  carry  it 
to  the  tunnel  mouth,  where  it  expended  its  energy  harm- 


H   2 


ico    RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

lessly  by  tumbling  wildly  among  the  rocks.  When  pockets 
of  water  and  springs  are  tapped  in  this  manner,  the  ques- 
tion is  to  control  the  water  so  encountered  in  such  a  manner 
that  it  does  not  interfere  with  the  drilling  work  or  flood 
the  workings.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  when  the  Simplon 
tunnel  was  in  progress  these  underground  springs  were 
harnessed  and  compelled  to  perform  useful  work ;  they  were 
thrown  against  the  rock  face  to  keep  down  the  internal 
temperature. 

Work  continued  incessantly  day  and  night;  but  it  was 
hard  and  exhausting  the  farther  the  men  advanced.  The 
drills  scarcely  could  bite  into  the  rock,  as  it  was  so  tough. 
At  one  time  the  question  became  so  acute  that  the  engineers 
brought  up  the  electric  drills  used  in  the  Karawanken  under- 
taking in  order  to  see  if  matters  could  not  be  expedited, 
but  they  failed  to  make  as  much  headway  as  the  hydraulic 
tools.  Another  handicapping  factor  was  the  heat,  which 
rose  very  rapidly,  and  although  it  did  not  attain  that  degree 
experienced  in  the  boring  of  the  Simplon,  yet  it  caused 
considerable  fatigue  among  the  workmen  engaged  in  such 
a  confined  space.  The  elaborate  ventilating  system  sufficed 
to  keep  the  air  as  sweet  and  cool  as  possible,  but  it  did  not 
solve  the  problem  completely.  The  workmen,  cramped  as 
they  were  in  the  confined  space — the  area  available  for 
manipulating  the  tools  only  measured  a  few  feet  in  each 
direction — often  betrayed  painful  signs  of  physical  distress. 

But  at  last  there  was  a  wild  cheer,  which  echoed  and 
re-echoed  through  the  caverns  to  the  tunnel's  mouths. 
Those  outside  realised  that  something  untoward  had 
occurred,  and  in  a  few  seconds  the  news  came  through  the 
gloomy  depths  that  the  drills  had  pierced  the  last  72 
inches  of  rock  separating  the  two  headings,  and  that 
the  Tauern  was  conquered.  That  was  on  July  21,  1907, 
some  five  years  after  the  first  boulder  was  torn  from  the 
mountain-side.  Once  this  last  barrier  was  broken  down 
the  finishing  touches  were  soon  applied,  and  the  double 
track  laid  from  end  to  end. 

Though  the  Tauern  tunnel  constitutes  the  outstanding 


THE   WONDERS  OF   THE   TYROL  101 

features  on  the  section  stretching  from  Schwarzach  St. 
Veit  to  Villach,  there  are  innumerable  other  subsidiary 
works  which  in  themselves  are  of  importance.  One  of 
more  than  passing  interest  is  a  clever  piece  of  construction 
in  ordef  to  overcome  a  difference  of  2,975  feet  in  level 
between  the  Tauern  tunnel  and  Ober  Villach  by  means  of 
a  huge  "S"  loop  four  and  a  half  miles  in  length. 

The  fulfilment  of  this  undertaking  constitutes  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  railway  engineering  feats  in  Europe. 
Certainly  it  ranks  among  the  most  expensive  enterprises 
that  ever  have  been  attempted  west  of  the  Urals.  To  the 
travelling  and  commercial  community  its  value  is  incal- 
culable, for  Munich,  which  was  formerly  a  tedious  journey 
of  twenty-three  hours  from  Trieste,  is  now  within  twelve 
hours'  run,  while  the  other  great  centres  of  Europe  have 
been  brought  proportionately  nearer  the  Adriatic  by  this 
new  and  more  direct  route. 


CHAPTER    VIII 

THE  RECLAMATION   OF  ALASKA 

UNTIL  a  few  years  ago  the  popular  conception  of  Alaska 
was  a  vast  country  sealed  against  the  efforts  of  civilisation 
by  impenetrable  barriers  of  snow  and  ice,  presenting  such 
a  dismal  outlook  as  to  daunt  the  most  intrepid  spirits. 
But  to-day  quite  a  different  impression  prevails.  Alaska 
is  considered  a  coming  country,  although  it  rests  on  either 
side  of  the  invisible  line  denoting  the  Arctic  circle.  It  is 
a  vast  mineral  storehouse,  the  lofty  mountains  containing 
rich  deposits  of  all  the  valuable  minerals  of  commerce, 
while  the  dales  nestling  among  the  peaks  have  been  found 
to  be  of  wonderful  fertility  and  capable  of  producing  a 
wealth  of  agricultural  produce.  One  might  regard  the 
possibility  of  raising  wheat  and  hay  in  that  northern  clime 
as  a  mere  phantasy,  but  I  have  seen  cereals  and  hay  cut 
in  those  valleys  which  compare  very  favourably  in  quality 
with  the  similar  products  grown  in  the  great  agricultural 
belts  of  the  United  States  and  Canada. 

The  fact  is  that  the  interior,  far  from  being  locked  the 
whole  year  round  in  a  temperature  hovering  around,  or 
many  degrees  below,  zero,  has  extremes  of  heat  and  cold. 
In  the  winter  the  snow  envelops  the  ground  to  a  depth  of 
several  feet,  and  the  mercury  descends  to  40  or  50  degrees 
below  zero,  but  in  the  summer  the  thermometer  registers 
temperatures  of  80  and  90  degrees.  While  the  winter 
grips  the  country  for  nearly  two-thirds  of  the  year,  the 
summer  barely  lasts  100  days.  But  what  a  summer  it  is  ! 
The  sun  shines  from  a  cloudless  sky  the  whole  time,  and 
for  some  twenty  hours  throughout  the  day.  Consequently 
it  is  possible  to  sow  and  to  harvest  the  crops  within  80 
days. 

102 


THE   RECLAMATION   OF   ALASKA  103 

Along  the  coast  extremely  cold  weather  scarcely  ever  is 
experienced.  The  conditions,  in  fact,  are  very  similar  to 
those  prevailing  in  Scandinavia.  The  coast-line  of  the 
latter  country  is  bathed  by  the  warm  waters  of  the  Gulf 
Stream  :  the  coast-line  of  Alaska  is  swept  by  the  warm 
breezes  of  the  Japanese  chinook  wind  blowing  off  the 
Pacific.  V 

Yet  popular  fallacy  resulted  in  the  country  being 
regarded  as  a  closed  book,  and  the  possibility  of  a  railway 
ever  securing  sufficient  traffic  to  justify  its  existence  was 
ridiculed  to  scorn  twenty  years  ago.  But  the  past  two 
decades  have  witnessed  strange  developments.  The  railway 
engineer  has  penetrated  the  country,  and  to-day  there  is  a 
scene  of  great  activity  to  connect  the  remarkable  discoveries 
of  metals  among  the  mountains  with  convenient  points 
of  shipment  along  the  coast. 

It  was  the  discovery  of  gold,  and  the  subsequent  rush 
to  the  "Klondike,"  that  brought  about  the  unlocking  of 
Alaska,  and  which  was  responsible  for  bringing  a  country 
of  591,000  square  miles  within  the  purview  of  the  railway- 
builder.  A  rude  collection  of  timber  shacks  and  tents 
sprung  up  like  mushrooms  on  a  little  indent  on  the  sea- 
shore, and  to-day  is  a  healthy,  prosperous  town  and  port 
— Skaguay.  From  this  point  the  daring  spirits  infected 
with  the  "yellow  fever"  pushed  inland  over  the  gaunt, 
snow-clad  mountains  to  the  "fields,"  enduring  privations 
untold  and  experiences  that  make  the  blood  run  cold  in 
order  to  gain  the  new  Eldorado.  The  trail  was  blazed  with 
the  bleached  bones  of  animals  and  pioneers  eager  to  be 
first  on  the  spot.  Of  roads  there  were  none — there  was 
not  even  a  rough  path.  Those  early  seekers  had  to  tread 
one  with  their  own  feet. 

No  sooner  had  the  first  reports  concerning  the  discoveries 
of  gold  at  Dawson  trickled  through,  to  be  substantiated 
by  subsequent  investigations,  than  the  possibility  of  build- 
ing a  railway  from  the  coast  to  the  gold-fields,  in  order  to 
lift  the  men  over  the  most  difficult  and  hazardous  part  of 
the  journey,  was  discussed.  Indeed,  among  one  of  the 


io4    RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

earliest  bands  which  trailed  across  the  Chilkoot  Pass  in  a 
thick  black  line  were  one  or  two  surveyors  spying  out  the 
general  characteristics  of  the  country.  Less  than  two  years 
after  the  excitement  first  flared  up  the  plans  for  a  line 
112  miles  in  length,  extending  practically  through  unknown 
country,  had  been  prepared.  One  end  of  the  line  rested 
on  the  seashore  at  Skaguay,  while  the  other  reposed  at 
White  Horse,  near  Lake  Lebarge,  where  communication 
was  effected  with  the  wonderful  inland  waterway  of  the 
country,  the  river  Yukon.  It  was  not  a  long  railway  in 
comparison  with  other  great  systems  of  the  world,  but  it 
was  a  highly  ambitious  enterprise,  for  it  was  destined  to 
lift  man  and  freight  over  the  most  terrible  part  of  the 
country,  the  coast  range  which  had  been  the  grave  of 
scores  of  fortune-hunters. 

The  prime  mover  in  this  undertaking  was  an  accom- 
plished engineer  who  is  quite  at  home  in  such  inhospitable 
territory.  He  was  sanguine  of  its  financial  success,  but 
when  he  approached  American  financiers  for  support  he 
was  laughed  to  scorn.  But  this  man  was  not  to  be  cast 
down  so  easily.  Foiled  in  his  efforts  to  enlist  the  practical 
sympathy  of  his  own  countrymen,  he  came  to  London  and 
sought  British  assistance,  for  in  the  matter  of  railway 
pioneering  the  British  financier  is  probably  the  greatest 
plunger.  He  required  roughly  ;£  1,000,000,  or  $5,000,000, 
and  what  was  more,  he  secured  it.  The  firmness  and 
boldness  with  which  the  capitalists  of  London  supported 
what  was  regarded  as  a  hare-brained  scheme  astonished 
the  American  financial  world.  The  ultimate  success  of 
the  enterprise,  however,  was  even  more  surprising  to  them, 
and  they  more  than  regretted  their  refusal  to  support  the 
undertaking  when  it  was  originally  laid  before  them.  One 
eminent  authority  belaboured  his  compatriots  soundly  for 
their  lack  of  foresight  and  initiative,  and  aptly  remarked, 
"As  long  as  the  British  know  how  to  grasp  the  trade  of 
the  world,  when  and  where  it  is  most  profitable,  they  have 
no  immediate  cause  to  worry  about  German  and  American 
competition." 


i 


THE    RECLAMATION   OF   ALASKA  105 

Armed  with  the  requisite  cash  resources,  the  projector 
lost  no  time.  He  hurried  back  to  Alaska  and  commenced 
his  attack  upon  the  towering  mountain  chain.  His  arrival 
in  " shack-town  "  with  an  efficient  staff  and  materials  signal- 
ised the  transition  of  Skaguay  from  a  tumbledown,  dis- 
reputable collection  of  shanties  into  an  important,  well- 
built  port. 

The  engineer  realised  only  too  well  that  he  had  a  desper- 
ate task  confronting  him.  The  maps  and  reports  of  the 
territory  he  intended  to  traverse  were  found  to  be  absolutely 
unreliable.  He  discarded  the  whole  lot  and  advised  his 
own  survey  expeditions  to  prepare  their  own  cartographical 
guides.  Five  surveys  were  run,  and  five  alternate  routes 
for  the  line  between  the  coast  and  White  Horse  were 
completed  before  selection  was  made  definitely. 

Then  the  rock  and  earth  commenced  to  fly.  There  was 
a  call  for  5000  men.  Skaguay  was  the  starting-point, 
the  first  spadeful  of  earth  being  turned  near  the  water's 
edge.  A  narrow  gauge — three  feet — was  adopted  as  being 
more  economical  to  build,  while  from  the  traffic  point  of 
view  it  was  considered  to  be  more  than  adequate.  As  the 
small  gangs  of  men  armed  with  pick-axes  and  shovels 
advanced  up  the  main  street  of  the  town  in  embryo, 
defining  the  grade,  the  enthusiasm  knew  no  bounds.  It 
was  an  occasion  for  a  frantic  outburst  of  revelry.  The 
conquest  of  the  dreaded  White  Pass  had  commenced  ?  the 
most  northerly  railway  on  the  American  continent  was 
under  way;  and  the  time  was  not  far  distant  when  the 
miners  would  be  able  to  pass  from  coast  to  gold-fields  with 
no  more  danger  or  discomfort  than  attends  one  who  travels 
from  London  to  Scotland  or  from  New  York  to  Chicago. 

For  the  first  five  miles  the  going  was  easy,  as  the  line 
was  plotted  through  practically  level  country  with  only  a 
slight  ascent  in  order  to  strike  the  mountains  at  a  con- 
venient point.  Two  months  after  the  first  sod  was  turned 
down  by  the  waterside  this  section  was  completed  and 
opened  for  traffic,  an  event  which  was  not  permitted  to 
pass  by  without  another  outbreak  of  jubilation. 


io6    RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

The  feature  that  most  astonished  the  inhabitants,  how- 
ever, was  the  vigour  with  which  the  presiding  genius 
pushed  his  enterprise  forward.  The  gold  rush  was  at  its 
height,  and  hundreds  of  new  arrivals  poured  into  Skaguay 
from  every  arriving  boat.  One  and  all  were  bound  for  the 
diggings,  and  they  proceeded  as  far  as  possible  over  the 
railway,  to  continue  a  wearisome  toil  afoot  from  the  rail- 
head. To  these  men  the  completion  of  the  line  meant 
more  than  one  can  realise  from  a  distance.  That  plod  over 
the  mountain  crest  through  a  pass  which  is  so  steep  that 
it  appeared  to  lean  back  was  heroic. 

As  the  engineer  penetrated  the  mountains  his  task 
became  more  exacting,  perilous,  and  the  pace  of  the 
advance  eased  up  appreciably.  There  was  no  dearth  of 
labour,  for  new  arrivals,  not  having  the  wherewithal  to 
gain  the  gold  region,  or  others  who,  having  ventured 
there  to  meet  only  with  misfortune  and  ill-luck,  were  only 
too  glad  to  seize  the  opportunity  to  earn  a  good  day's 
pay  on  the  building  of  the  White  Pass  &  Yukon  railway, 
as  it  is  called. 

The  engineer  decided  to  keep  his  grades  as  easy  as 
possible,  but  during  the  course  of  15  miles  through  the 
mountains  he  found  very  quickly  that  this  was  no  easy 
matter.  He  had  to  gain  the  summit  of  the  pass,  an 
altitude  of  2,888  feet,  in  this  distance,  and  it  was  found 
quite  hopeless  without  a  climb  of  i  in  15.  Much  of 
the  country  lying  in  his  path  never  had  been  trodden 
by  man.  Below  the  snow-line  it  was  covered  thickly  with 
virgin  forest,  tangled  undergrowth  and  dead-fall  piled  up 
to  a  tremendous  height,  through  which  the  men  had  to 
axe  their  way  at  a  snail's  pace.  Above  the  line  where 
timber  ceased  to  thrive  cliffs  rose  up  sheer,  with  their  faces 
so  polished  by  the  Arctic  gales  and  weather  as  to  be  as  slip- 
pery as  ice  and  affording  no  foothold  whatever.  In  order 
that  the  workmen  might  gain  a  purchase  for  the  wielding 
of  their  tools,  huge  logs  were  slung  down  from  convenient 
heights,  held  in  position  by  massive  chains  attached  to 
iron  dogs  driven  into  the  rock,  and  on  this  flimsy  foothold 


THE    FIRST    HOUR'S    WORK  :    NAVVIES    PREPARING    THE    GRADE   ALONG 
THE    MAIN    STREET    OF    SKAGUAY 


Photos,  Draper,  Skaguay] 

BY    RAILWAY    TO   THE    KLONDIKE — THE   WHITE    PASS   AND 
YUKON    LINE    UNDER   CONSTRUCTION 

Laying  the  metals  at  the  head  of  Lake  Bennett,  showing  construction  camp. 


THE   DISMAL   TRACT   OF   SWAMP   AND    RIVER   THROUGH   WHICH   THE 
ALASKAN    CENTRAL_RAILWAY    MAKES    ITS   WAY 


THE   RECLAMATION   OF  ALASKA  107 

the  men  were  compelled  to  prosecute  their  tasks  as  best 
they  could. 

One  of  the  most  complex  difficulties  was  in  regard  to 
the  bringing  up  of  provisions  and  stores  for  the  men,  and 
the  requisite  material  for  the  railway.  The  base  of  supplies 
was  over  1000  miles  away,  every  ounce  of  necessities  having 
to  be  brought  up  by  water  from  Seattle  or  Vancouver. 
The  little  army  was  cut  off  entirely  from  the  outside  world, 
news  of  which  could  be  gleaned  only  when  a  boat  called 
at  Skaguay.  The  absence  of  telegraphic  communication 
was  a  deficiency  which  was  felt  the  most  sorely.  The  post, 
intermittent  and  uncertain,  as  there  was  no  regular  service, 
was  the  sole  vehicle  of  communication.  Consequently 
extreme  care  had  to  be  observed  to  preserve  a  continuous 
stream  of  the  material  required.  The  omission  of  this  or 
that  entailed  a  delay  of  anything  from  ten  days  upwards. 

At  one  point  a  lofty  granite  tooth  70  feet  wide  and 
20  feet  thick  sheered  up  in  front  of  the  engineer  to  a 
height  of  120  feet.  He  neither  attempted  to  go  round  nor 
through  the  obstacle.  He  brought  up  a  squad  of  expert 
drillers,  and  soon  they  were  engaged  in  honeycombing 
the  base  of  the  cliff  with  deep  holes.  Charges  of  explosives 
were  rammed  home,  and  when  detonated  the  whole  crag, 
a  crumbling  mass  of  rock,  rattled  down  into  the  ravine. 
The  pedestal  of  this  cliff  was  then  smoothed  off,  and 
thereon  the  sleepers  and  metals  were  laid. 

By  dint  of  prodigious  effort,  continued  without  inter- 
mission both  day  and  night  the  whole  week  through, 
without  even  a  respite  for  Sundays,  the  engineer  succeeded 
in  carrying  the  railway  forward  for  a  distance  of  40 
miles  and  over  the  summit  of  the  pass  in  a  single  season. 
Such  an  achievement  in  the  face  of  the  abnormal  diffi- 
culties encountered,  in  such  a  short  space  of  time,  was 
indeed  memorable. 

Satisfied  with  this  result,  the  engineer  called  a  halt. 
His  men  were  in  dire  need  of  rest,  and  as  there  was  no 
object  in  exposing  them  unduly  to  the  rigours  of  the 
terrible  winter  now  that  the  back  of  the  task  had  been 


io8    RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

broken,  constructional  work  was  suspended  for  a  few 
months.  But  it  was  not  a  period  of  complete  inactivity. 
He  had  planned  his  work  for  the  following  summer,  and 
during  the  winter  months  he  pressed  the  snow-covered 
country  into  service  for  the  erection  of  his  constructional 
camps,  the  disposition  of  building  material,  provisions 
and  stores  at  convenient  points  over  a  long  distance  ahead. 

One  cannot  help  admiring  the  perspicacity  of  the  man 
identified  with  this  peculiar  enterprise.  When  he  sought 
financial  assistance  to  further  his  scheme  he  argued  that 
directly  the  railway  had  negotiated  the  summit,  remunera- 
tive traffic  would  develop.  So  it  proved.  Confident  in 
these  anticipations,  the  guiding  hand  had  ordered  con- 
siderable rolling-stock  to  be  hurried  to  Skaguay  while  his 
graders  were  forcing  their  way  to  the  summit,  and  when 
the  pass  was  overcome  a  service  was  inaugurated. 

Yet  it  is  doubtful  if  the  engineer  scarcely  expected  the 
results  that  were  experienced.  The  adequacy  of  his  rolling- 
stock  over  the  first  40  miles  was  tested  to  breaking  point. 
The  pack-trail  over  the  pass  was  abandoned  as  quickly 
as  a  candle  is  extinguished  by  a  gust  of  wind  when  the 
first  train  was  announced.  The  miners  braved  the 
elements,  pitiless  cold  and  dazzling  snow,  no  longer.  From 
the  railway  to-day  one  can  still  see  decaying  evidences  of 
a  bygone  bustle  and  activity  attending  the  trek  of  the 
first  prospectors  and  pioneers  to  the  Klondike  in  the  falling 
shacks  and  huts  scattered  along  the  trail,  which  before  the 
advent  of  the  iron  horse  were  centres  of  life  and  revelry, 
but  which  to-day  are  wrapped  in  forlorn  desolation. 
Scarcely  a  person  enters  or  even  passes  their  doors 
now. 

So  soon  as  the  winter  broke,  the  engineer  brought  his 
forces  to  the  front  once  more.  The  line  skirts  Lake 
Bennett.  White  Horse,  on  the  head  waters  of  the  Yukon, 
some  72  miles  ahead,  was  the  objective,  and  the  engineer 
was  determined  to  reach  that  inland  terminus  that 
season  by  hook  or  by  crook.  As  the  line  skirts  Lake 
Bennett,  and  this  sheet  of  water  is  navigable,  he  decided 


THE    RECLAMATION   OF   ALASKA  109 

to  use  it  temporarily  until  White  Horse  was  reached,  the 
railway  consequently  being  resumed  from  the  head  of  the 
lake.  This  was  a  justifiable  course,  inasmuch  as  the  build- 
ing of  the  line  along  the  waterside  would  have  occupied 
considerable  time  owing  to  physical  characteristics,  while 
it  was  imperative  that  White  Horse  should  be  reached 
without  delay. 

The  coming  of  spring  saw  the  graders  regirding  them- 
selves for  another  wrestle  with  the  rock  and  gravel.  Before 
they  had  gone  very  far  the  edge  of  a  lake  was  gained. 
Its  banks  were  precipitous  and  did  not  lend  themselves  to 
a  feasible  track.  An  ingenious  solution  of  the  problem  was 
essayed.  The  engineer  decided  to  lower  the  level  of  this 
sheet  of  water  by  some  14  feet  and  to  build  his  grade 
on  a  shelf  which  surveys  showed  there  would  be  exposed. 
To  this  end  he  cut  a  small  outlet.  But  as  the  vent  was 
driven  through  soft  soil  and  totally  inadequate  to  resist 
the  pent-up  force  of  the  escaping  water,  the  latter  widened 
the  breach  into  such  a  deep  and  wide  channel  that  the 
lake  was  lowered  by  no  less  than  70  feet !  This  result 
opened  up  a  new  difficulty,  escape  from  which  was  only 
practicable  by  the  erection  of  two  large  bridges  spanning 
the  rift  left  by  the  receding  waters.  As  a  result,  the  line 
does  not  run  round  the  lake  as  planned  originally,  but 
cuts  directly  across  its  bed. 

When  at  last  the  metals  were  laid  into  White  Horse 
and  the  Yukon  River  was  gained,  the  engineer  retraced 
his  footsteps  to  push  ahead  with  the  last  link  around  Lake 
Bennett,  so  that  through  rail  connection  between  the  coast 
and  the  Yukon  River  might  be  possible  that  year.  This 
was  a  heavy  piece  of  work  owing  to  the  indentation  of  the 
lake-shore  and  the  number  of  crags  that  dropped  into  the 
water.  But  by  blasting  away  the  faces  of  the  promontories 
to  fashion  a  narrow  gallery  upon  which  to  lay  the  track, 
and  by  dumping  the  rock  shivered  by  the  explosives  into 
the  bays  to  form  embankments,  an  easy  alignment  was 
secured. 

Although  the  railway  overcomes  mountains  running  up 


no    RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

to  a  height  of  7000  feet,  only  one  tunnel  was  found  to 
be  necessary.  Curves  are  numerous  and  sharp,  so  that 
the  line  describes  a  sinuous  route  among  the  peaks. 
Although  on  the  ascent  of  the  mountains  from  a  point 
5  miles  out  of  Skaguay  grades  of  i  in  25  were  found 
unavoidable  to  gain  the  summit,  the  descent  on,  the 
opposite  side  is  much  easier,  for  the  difference  in  level 
of  the  White  Pass  summit  and  White  Horse  summit, 
91  miles  beyond,  is  only  808  feet.  However,  the  line 
between  these  two  levels  is  built  for  the  most  part  on 
forced  grades. 

Bearing  in  mind  the  character  of  the  country  traversed, 
where  lofty  peaks  and  steep  precipices  alternate  with  deep 
gorges  and  wide  clefts,  it  is  obvious  that  such  a  railway 
as  this  could  not  be  completed  without  recourse  to  heavy 
bridging.  In  all  there  are  11,450  lineal  feet  of  such  struc- 
tures. There  are  seven  steel  bridges,  one  of  which,  just 
before  the  summit  is  gained,  is  400  feet  in  length,  with 
the  centre  215  feet  above  the  bottom  of  the  gorge. 

Taken  on  the  whole,  labour  was  not  so  difficult  a  problem 
in  Alaska  then  as  it  is  to-day,  despite  the  remote 
situation  of  the  constructional  work,  for  reasons  already 
explained.  The  enterprise  found  employment  for  about 
35,000  men,  and  it  speaks  volumes  for  the  care  exercised 
in  regard  to  their  comfort  and  welfare,  that  only  35 
men  met  their  deaths  through  accident  and  disease,  not- 
withstanding the  high  pressure  with  which  work  was  main- 
tained. The  men  for  the  most  part  were  far  more  intelligent 
than  those  generally  identified  with  such  work. 

To  illustrate  the  extreme  fascination  that  gold  exercises 
over  these  prospector-navvies,  one  incident  is  worth  relat- 
ing. The  men  were  driving  the  grade  with  great  zest, 
quite  contented  with  their  lot,  because  the  majority  had 
tasted  the  bitterness  of  ill-luck  at  the  Klondike.  One  day 
news  trickled  into  the  camp  of  the  discovery  of  a  new  gold- 
strike  not  far  distant  in  British  Columbia.  It  galvanised 
the  labourers  like  electricity,  awoke  all  slumbering 
ambitions  and  re-erected  all  the  castles  in  the  air  which 


THE   RECLAMATION   OF   ALASKA  in 

Dawson  had  dispelled  so  ruthlessly.  A  solid  phalanx  of 
1,500  men  threw  down  their  tools  and  clamoured  round 
the  pay-office  of  the  engineers  for  their  wages  due  to  them 
forthwith.  Not  having  received  any  premonitory  warning 
of  this  development,  the  engineer  inquired  what  was  the 
matter,  thinking  that  possibly  a  "strike  "  was  being  nursed. 
As  the  wages  were  paid  the  men  stampeded  off  to  see  if 
Fortune  could  be  wooed  any  more  easily  at  Atlin  than  she 
could  be  won  at  Klondike. 

As  the  railway  was  pushed  through  hurriedly  while  the 
Klondike  gold  fever  was  at  its  height,  some  of  the  work 
was  of  a  temporary  character,  but  once  the  communication 
was  established  the  whole  line  was  overhauled.  Timber 
trestles  and  bridges  were  replaced  by  heavier  substantial 
metallic  structures,  and  the  earthworks  were  strengthened. 
To-day  the  road  compares  with  any  to  be  found  on  the 
continent.  The  service  is  daily,  except  Sundays,  and  the 
line  is  patrolled  regularly  for  boulders  or  avalanches  which 
may  have  crashed  down  the  mountain-sides,  to  come  to 
rest  on  the  track,  and  which  form  fearsome  obstructions 
to  a  train.  In  winter  it  is  kept  open  by  means  of  the 
rotary  snow-ploughs.  This  is  no  easy  task,  for  the  bliz- 
zards among  mountains  of  the  north  are  ferocious  in 
their  severity.  Drifting  snow  often  fills  the  cuttings  to  a 
depth  of  35  feet  or  so.  Two  locomotives  harnessed  to 
one  of  these  snow-clearers  generally  contrive  to  force  a 
clean  open  passage  through  the  fleecy  mass,  however. 
It  may  be  pointed  out  that  this  railway  possesses  the 
largest  type  of  narrow-gauge  engines  in  the  world,  the 
engine  and  tender  in  working  order  turning  the  scale  at 
106  tons.  Travel  from  our  point  of  view  appears  somewhat 
expensive,  since  it  averages  is.  or  25  cents  per  mile. 

The  total  cost  of  constructing  and  building  the  railway 
amounted  to  .£850,000,  or  $4,250,000.  The  most  expensive 
section  was  that  from  Skaguay  to  the  White  Pass  summit, 
this  first  twenty  miles  involving  an  expenditure  of 
,£400,000,  or  $2,000,000.  In  the  first  season  after  com- 
pletion, however,  its  gross  receipts  were  ^800,000,  or 


ii2    RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

$4,000,000,  25  per  cent,  of  which  was  absorbed  by  working 
expense. 

One  outcome  of  the  remarkable  success  attending  the 
pioneer  Alaskan  railway  was  the  embarkation  upon  another 
undertaking  in  the  same  country,  this  time  under  United 
States  auspices.  This,  however,  was  a  far  more  ambitious 
scheme.  It  involved  the  building  "of  a  standard-gauge 
road  from  Seward,  in  Resurrection  Bay,  some  miles  north 
of  Skaguay,  to  the  town  of  Fairbanks,  463  miles  inland, 
the  idea  being  not  only  to  bring  the  latter  point  into  touch 
with  the  coast,  but  also  to  tap  rich  coal  deposits  and  vast 
forests  of  lumber.  Unfortunately  this  project  has  not  been 
attended  with  that  success  which  marked  the  White  Pass 
&  Yukon  line.  After  54  miles  were  completed  its  finances 
became  so  entangled  as  to  require  the  offices  of  a  receiver 
to  straighten  matters  out. 

However,  it  must  be  explained  that  several  unforeseen 
circumstances  contributed  to  this  chequered  career  over 
which  the  engineers  had  no  control.  Such  calamities  as 
floods,  arising  from  the  melting  snows  swelling  the  glacial 
rivers,  landslides  and  avalanches  wrought  widespread 
damage  time  after  time.  Moreover,  constructional  work 
was  not  quite  so  straightforward  as  on  the  road  more  to 
the  south,  for  progress  was  arrested  repeatedly  by  the 
necessity  of  carrying  out  heavier  work  than  the  surveys 
contemplated. 

Seward  is  situate  on  a  flat,  and  the  line  was  driven 
through  a  convenient  river  valley  from  this  point  into 
the  mountains.  The  absence  of  any  roads  or  even  trails 
rendered  investigation  of  the  country  fringing  the  proposed 
route  precarious  and  trying  because  large  stretches  of 
swamp  occupied  the  valleys,  while  the  mountains  were 
torn  and  broken,  rising  up  steeply  on  either  side. 

The  line  was  to  conform  in  every  particular  to  a  first- 
class  trunk  system,  with  a  maximum  grade  of  only  i 
in  50,  with  few  and  easy  curves.  That  was  the  idea  on 
paper,  but  it  proved  a  terrible  task  to  attempt  to  reduce 
theory  to  practice.  Directly  the  base  of  operations  at 


A   WASH-OUT   CAUSED   BY    THE    PLACER    RIVER   IN    FLOOD 

Showing  the  extensive  damage  inflicted  upon  the  embankment. 


THE   OBLITERATION   OF    THE    LINE    BY  A    LANDSLIDE 
Over  1,200  feet  of  track  was  torn  up  and  carried  2000  feet  down  the  mountain-side. 

TWO   VISITATIONS   OF   NATURE   WHICH    OVERWHELM    THE 
CENTRAL  ALASKAN    RAILWAY   PERIODICALLY. 


THE   RECLAMATION   OF   ALASKA  113 

Seward  was  left,  the  engineers  found  the  country  in  its 
primeval  condition,  the  ground  being  covered  with  a  tall, 
dense,  dank  grass  between  five  and  six  feet  in  height, 
and  tangled  thick  forests.  Clearing  alone  was  a  tedious 
job,  and  the  prevalence  of  bog  rendered  movement  slow 
and  exasperating. 

As  a  rule  it  is  mountains  which  offer  a  deterring  barrier 
to  the  engineer,  but  in  this  instance  it  was  the  valleys 
which  presented  the  most  searching  difficulties.  The 
practical  route  for  the  line  lay  through  the  Placer  River 
Valley,  and  the  negotiation  of  this  depression  in  order 
to  preserve  the  grade  and  alignment  was  beset  with  innu- 
merable perplexities.  After  leaving  the  coast  the  railway 
has  to  climb  gradually  until  it  gains  and  crosses  the 
summit  of  the  watershed  at  an  altitude  of  1,050  feet  and 
45  miles  out  of  Seward.  Then  comes  a  sharp  drop 
for  3  miles,  followed  by  a  more  rapid  descent  for  200 
feet  or  so.  In  times  gone  by  a  huge  glacier  filled  this 
valley.  At  the  head  the  ravine  narrows  sharply  and  leads 
into  a  canyon,  where  the  rocky  wall  rises  up  on  either 
hand  almost  perpendicularly  to  a  height  of  some  700  feet. 
This  rift  is  about  three-quarters  of  a  mile  in  length,  and 
opens  into  another  valley  at  the  foot  of  a  large  glacier 
which  leads  to  a  bay  on  the  coast  known  as  Turnagain 
Arm.  So  sharp  is  the  descent  that  in  the  course  of  22 
miles  some  900  feet  has  to  be  overcome. 

The  drop  from  the  summit  at  the  48th  mile-post  out  of 
Seward  for  a  distance  of  6  miles  puzzled  the  engineers 
sorely.  Six  surveys  had  to  be  run  through  this  short 
canyon,  and  even  then  a  grade  of  less  than  double  the 
i  in  50  was  found  impracticable.  The  configuration  of 
the  rift  did  not  permit  official  requirements  to  be  carried 
out  with  economy.  Even  the  grade  twice  that  demanded 
was  found  unattainable  without  six  tunnels  and  seven  large 
curves. 

The  survey  was  a  perilous  undertaking  owing  to  the 
extreme  steepness  of  the  cliff-sides  and  the  vegetation 
clinging  to  the  rocky  face.  The  rodmen  working  with 


ii4     RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF    THE    WORLD 

the  survey  parties  had  to  be  slung  in  mid-air  from  ropes 
to  enable  the  requisite  calculations  to  be  made. 

The  difficulties  of  the  survey  were  surpassed  by  those 
of  construction.  The  very  first  tunnel  brought  this  home 
with  startling  vividity.  It  is  700  feet  in  length,  and  is 
almost  entirely  on  a  curve  of  about  400  feet  radius  burrow- 
ing through  a  projecting  hump  of  the  main  chain.  In 
order  to  gain  the  tunnel  a  broad  sweep  of  the  same  radius 
as  that  of  the  tunnel  curve  had  to  be  made,  and  the  two 
works  together  form  two-thirds  of  a  circle.  But  one  portal 
of  the  tunnel  opens  out  on  the  brink  of  a  precipice,  the 
mountain-side  falling  away  abruptly  at  that  point.  So  in 
order  to  carry  the  line  forward  a  huge  artificial  work  had 
to  be  carried  out.  This  is  a  timber  trestle  which  con- 
stitutes one  of  the  most  outstanding  features  of  the  line. 
From  end  to  end  it  measures  1,240  feet  in  length,  while 
it  varies  in  height  from  40  to  90  feet,  some  of  the  outside 
members  being  no  less  that  120  feet  in  length.  Over 
1,000,000  feet  of  timber  was  used  in  its  construction. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  extent  of  timber  trestling  upon 
this  railway  cannot  fail  to  impress  the  visitor.  In  the 
valleys  the  line  is  laid  almost  entirely  upon  a  wooden 
grade,  owing  to  the  absence  of  stable  solid  ground  upon 
which  to  raise  embankments,  while  the  rivers  are  spanned 
by  steel  bridges  ranging  in  span  from  80  to  100  feet 
in  the  clear.  As  the  rivers  rise  and  fall  considerably 
according  to  the  season,  the  abutments  had  to  be  set  well 
back  from  the  low  channel,  and,  moreover,  had  to  be 
protected  heavily  by  piling  to  withstand  the  severe  scouring 
that  takes  place  when  the  waterways  are  in  flood  and  they 
rush  along  with  the  speed  of  a  cataract. 

More  than  50  per  cent,  of  the  work  through  the  canyon 
is  tunnelling,  which  aggregates  2,800  feet  out  of  4,800  feet. 
There  was  no  other  way  of  overcoming  the  abrupt  cliff- 
sides,  and  but  for  the  rifts  and  clefts  in  their  flanks  its 
extent  would  have  been  greater.  This  was  the  work  which 
occupied  so  much  time  and  consumed  so  much  money, 
for  the  rock  was  found  to  be  intensely  hard.  Steam  drill- 


THE   RECLAMATION   OF   ALASKA  115 

ing  was  attempted  at  first,  but  the  temperature  within  the 
borings  rose  so  high  as  to  become  intolerable.  Therefore 
this  plant  had  to  be  discarded  in  favour  of  compressed 
air  drills.  With  their  aid  a  hole  21  feet  in  height,  by  14 
and  1 6  feet  in  width,  to  carry  a  single  track,  was  hewn 
and  blasted  out. 

The  installation  of  the  power  plant  to  operate  the  drills 
was  a  pretty  problem.  It  could  not  be  set  up  on  the  same 
side  of  the  canyon  as  the  borings  were  being  made,  so 
had  to  be  rigged  up  at  a  convenient  point  on  the  opposite 
wall  near  the  upper  end  of  the  gorge,  the  power  being 
transmitted  through  piping.  In  order  to  carry  the  latter 
across  the  gulch  a  temporary  suspension  bridge  130  feet 
long  was  erected,  and  as  it  was  also  employed  for  the 
purpose  of  conveying  materials  and  men  from  one  cliff 
to  the  other,  was  made  heavier  than  otherwise. 

In  addition  to  perforating  the  shoulders  of  the  moun- 
tains, deep  clefts  in  the  mountain  faces  had  to  be  spanned 
or  masses  of  obstructing  rock  had  to  be  blown  out  of  the 
way.  In  one  instance  there  was  a  couloir  which  required 
a  go-foot  span  bridge  to  cross  from  one  side  to  the 
other,  while  in  another  case  300  feet  of  solid  rock,  aggre- 
gating over  50,000  tons  of  rock,  had  to  be  torn  down  to 
enable  the  grade  to  proceed  from  one  tunnel  to  the  other. 
About  thirteen  months  were  required  to  carry  the  line 
through  this  stretch  of  4,800  feet. 

The  struggles  with  the  rock  were  equalled  by  the  wrestles 
with  Nature  in  the  valleys.  These  are  to  all  intents  and 
purposes  beds  of  rivers  whose  boundaries  are  the  bases 
of  the  mountains  on  either  side.  As  a  result,  the  whole 
of  the  depression  is  practically  a  swamp,  with  the  river 
cutting  a  tortuous  path  apparently  through  the  centre. 
The  word  "apparently"  is  used  because  what  is  the  main 
channel  of  the  river  to-day  will  be  semi-dry  land  probably 
next  year,  because  in  the  flood  season,  when  the  rivers  are 
fed  by  melting  snows,  to  speed  along  with  fiendish 
velocity,  they  are  just  as  likely  as  not  to  cut  out  an 
entirely  new  path  through  the  soft  soil.  If  the  railway 

I    2 


n6    RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE    WORLD 

embankment  bars  its  passage  the  whole  obstruction  is 
swept  away.  Hundreds  of  feet  of  completed  line  have  been 
demolished  in  this  manner.  If  the  rushing  river  is  unable 
to  break  through  the  embankment  it  swirls  around  the 
obstruction,  rapidly  undermining  the  foundations,  with  the 
result  that  a  bad  cave-in  ensues,  which  is  in  every  way 
as  bad  as  a  clean  wash-out,  except  that  perhaps  the  railway 
metals  and  sleepers  can  be  retrieved. 

Even  the  mountain-sides,  solid  though  they  appear, 
are  not  free  from  Nature's  playful  antics.  When  the 
spring  sun  comes  round  and  melts  heavy  masses  of  snow 
on  the  higher  levels  there  is  trouble  looming  below.  The 
snow  slips  on  the  crest.  Gathering  impetus  with  every 
succeeding  foot  in  its  descent,  the  avalanche  picks  up 
boulders,  trees  and  other  debris,  to  hurl  them  with  terrific 
force  against  the  handiwork  of  man,  wiping  it  completely 
out  of  existence.  One  slide  caught  the  unfortunate  railway 
in  this  manner,  tore  up  1,200  feet  of  permanent  way,  and 
threw  it,  a  twisted  mass  of  iron  and  splintered  timber,  a 
third  of  a  mile  away. 

Considering  the  overwhelming  odds  against  which  the 
engineer  was  pitted,  it  is  not  surprising  that  work  was 
brought  to  a  standstill.  The  situation  was  summed  up 
very  graphically  by  one  of  the  engineers  whom  I  met. 
"If  Nature  would  only  leave  us  alone  once  we  have  built 
the  line,  we  should  not  care  what  kind  of  fight  she  put  up 
against  us  to  delay  our  advance.  But  all  the  money  which 
could  be  devoted  to  new  construction  is  devoured  in 
rebuilding  track  which  is  either  washed  away  or  buried." 


CHAPTER    IX 

THE   HOLY   RAILWAY   TO    MECCA 

WHILE  the  majority  of  railways  are  constructed  to  meet 
the  exigencies  of  commerce,  and  occasionally  from  con- 
siderations of  military  strategy,  there  is  one  striking  in- 
stance of  a  line  being  built  expressly  for  religious  purposes. 
This  is  the  Hedjaz  railway,  which  stretches  its  sinuous, 
glittering  arm  of  steel  from  Damascus  for  nearly  1000 
miles  southwards  through  the  inhospitable  deserts  of 
Palestine  and  Arabia  to  Mecca  and  Medina,  the  sacred 
cities  of  the  Moslem  faith.  The  railway  was  built  entirely 
by  Mahommedans  for  Mahommedans,  every  penny  re- 
quired for  the  scheme  being  subscribed  by  the  members  of 
this  vast  sect. 

Every  member  of  the  Faithful  cherishes  one  ambition  in 
life — to  make  the  "Hadj,"  or  Sacred  Journey  to  the  cradle 
and  shrine  of  the  Prophet.  A  few  years  ago  this  was  an 
undertaking  from  which  all  but  those  blinded  by  religious 
fervour  shrank.  The  journey  had  to  be  completed  afoot, 
by  camel  or  caravan,  according  to  the  financial  status  of  the 
pilgrim ;  but  whatever  method  of  transit  was  favoured,  the 
self-same  dangers  prevailed,  though  obviously  they  were 
experienced  most  severely  by  those  who  were  compelled  to 
have  recourse  to  Shanks'  Pony. 

The  route  extended  through  practically  uninhabited, 
sterile  plains,  upon  which  the  sun  beat  down  mercilessly, 
and  the  heat  overhead  was  only  equalled  by  that  reflected 
from  the  glaring  sand,  which  blistered  the  feet  and  im- 
parted a  fiery,  maddening  thirst.  Food  and  water  had  to 
be  carried  by  the  pilgrim,  because  no  sustenance  could  be 
obtained  by  the  wayside.  Even  the  welcome  oases,  with 
their  refreshing,  cooling  rills  and  pools  of  water  beneath 
the  shade  of  the  palms,  are  few  and  far  between. 

117 


n8     RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF    THE   WORLD 

To  the  dangers  of  hunger,  thirst  and  physical  exhaustion 
there  had  to  be  included  those  from  the  attacks  of  the 
marauding  Bedouins,  who  hung  on  the  sides  of  the  over- 
land route,  ever  on  the  look-out  to  despoil  the  traveller. 
These  brigands  were  most  daring  and  ferocious  in  their 
depredations.  They  robbed  the  pilgrim  of  all  he  pos- 
sessed, and  if  his  poverty  resulted  in  a  meagre  reward  for 
their  attack,  they  bludgeoned  him  mercilessly  for  not  being 
better  provided  with  this  world's  goods,  and  left  him 
bleeding  and  dying  in  the  sun. 

Every  year  hundreds  of  pilgrims  paid  the  penalty  for 
their  zeal.  They  set  out  from  Damascus  on  their  mission 
of  duty  and  faith  never  to  return.  So  powerless  was  the 
Ottoman  Government  that  these  relentless  nomads  pursued 
their  life  of  brigandage  and  preying  on  the  pilgrims 
unchecked  and  without  fear  of  punishment. 

The  Hedjaz  railway  was  conceived  in  order  to  remove 
these  perils  and  privations.  When  the  Sultan  published 
the  details  of  his  idea  it  was  hailed  with  unalloyed  enthu- 
siasm by  every  Mahommedan  throughout  the  world,  and 
one  and  all  contributed  towards  the  furtherance  of  the 
scheme. 

The  fulfilment  of  this  enterprise  will  always  rank  as  a 
magnificent  achievement  in  the  romance  of  railway 
engineering ;  the  methods  by  which  the  numerous  obstacles 
were  broken  down  as  they  arose  contribute  fascinating 
incidents  to  a  thrilling  story.  When  it  is  remembered 
that  approximately  1000  miles  of  metals  had  to  be  laid 
through  some  of  the  most  sterile  and  difficult  country 
on  the  globe ;  that  some  4000  bridges,  viaducts  and  tunnels 
had  to  be  built  to  span  rushing  rivers,  yawning  chasms, 
and  to  penetrate  precipitous  bluffs ;  that  sudden  drops 
had  to  be  made  from  highlands  to  valleys,  and  equally 
steep  ascents  from  depressions  to  plateaus,  then  a  faint 
idea  of  the  formidable  character  of  the  undertaking  may 
be  gathered. 

For  months  the  constructional  engineers  were  buried  in 
the  midst  of  the  biting,  scorching  and  driving  sand,  quite 


l>koto,,HtUadji«»\ 


RAILWAY,    SHOWING    SOLIDITY    OF 


THE   HOLY   RAILWAY   TO    MECCA         119 

isolated  from  the  outside  world,  the  clang  of  the  tools 
being  the  only  sound  breaking  a  silence  so  intense  that  it 
could  be  felt.  Occasionally  the  news  filtered  through  that 
the  implacable  nomads  roaming  the  sweltering  plains  had 
swooped  down  upon  the  camps  and  that  a  desperate  hand- 
to-hand  struggle  had  been  waged.  Minute  details  were 
not  vouchsafed,  for  such  incidents  became  so  frequent  as 
to  become  monotonous. 

Yet  the  authorities  scarcely  anticipated  that  these 
marauders  would  wage  such  a  relentless  war  against  the 
advance  of  the  railway  as  did  eventually  come  to  pass. 
Yet  it  was  not  surprising.  The  Bedouins  realised  that  the 
completion  of  the  railway  would  bring  their  life  of  pillage 
and  murder  to  an  end,  and  accordingly  they  challenged 
every  foot  of  its  advance.  Sometimes  they  won,  massacred 
the  encampment,  and  destroyed  the  line  for  some  distance ; 
at  others  they  lost  and  were  routed  right  and  left.  The 
story  of  the  Mahdi's  opposition  to  the  British  penetration  of 
Egypt  was  repeated  in  Palestine  and  Arabia,  only,  if  any- 
thingj  with  more  determined  fury.  The  soldiers  worked 
with  their  arms  beside  them,  and  protected  by  a  line  of 
guards  thrown  out  some  distance  around  the  railhead. 

The  military  commandant  was  given  a  free  hand  to  keep 
back  the  savage  tribes  in  such  a  manner  as  he  considered 
expedient,  in  order  to  permit  the  engineers  to  lay  the  metals 
as  fast  as  possible,  and  without  fear  of  being  molested. 
When  the  work  was  inaugurated  the  Turkish  Government 
appointed  a  strong  man  to  the  command  of  the  protective 
troops.  It  was  a  responsible  and  dangerous  position,  for 
the  authorities  recognised  from  bitter  experience  the  im- 
placable fury  of  these  tribesmen  when  fully  roused.  Field- 
Marshal  Kaisim  Pasha  was  appointed  to  the  military 
directorship,  and  he  proved  the  right  man  in  the  right 
place.  His  reputation  and  grim  determination  to  subdue 
lawlessness  were  well  known  to  the  bandits,  and  the 
Government  hoped  that  his  appointment  to  the  protection 
of  the  enterprise  would  strike  terror  into  the  hearts  of  the 
Bedouins.  But  far  from  it.  It  appeared  to  urge  them 


120     RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF    THE    WORLD 

to  greater  daring,  and  they  hung  on  his  flanks  relentlessly, 
cutting  off  stragglers  ruthlessly,  and  keeping  him  con- 
stantly on  the  alert.  The  Field-Marshal  was  kept  in  a 
state  of  perpetual  anxiety,  because  he  never  knew  upon 
which  side  or  where  he  would  be  attacked  next.  Brushes 
were  almost  of  daily  occurrence,  and  the  success  of  one  side 
or  the  other  fluctuated  like  a  barometer. 

Once  the  nomads  caught  Kaisim  Pasha  at  a  heavy  dis- 
advantage. The  navvies  and  engineers  were  busy  at  work 
as  usual  on  the  permanent  way,  with  the  military  outpost 
thrown  well  out  on  all  sides.  Suddenly  there  was  a  savage, 
heart-rending  yell,  and  the  desert  became  alive  with  the 
swarthy,  active  and  powerful,  infuriated  bandits.  In  an 
irresistible  wave  they  swept  down  upon  the  railhead.  The 
outposts  stood  their  ground,  but  they  were  overwhelmed 
in  the  rush.  The  Field-Marshal  hurriedly  called  one  and 
all  to  arms.  The  navvies  threw  down  their  hammers,  pick- 
axes, shovels,  and  other  tools,  grabbed  their  rifles,  and 
supported  the  soldiers.  But  there  was  no  stemming  that 
savage,  rushing  horde.  The  tribesmen  fanatically  threw 
themselves  upon  the  position,  and  to  such  advantage  that 
the  commander  was  compelled  to  retire,  leaving  100  dead 
upon  the  field. 

Construction  was  arrested  completely  for  a  time.  The 
bandits,  inspired  with  their  initial  success,  hung  about,  and 
at  the  slightest  attempt  at  a  sally,  concentrated  and  bore 
down,  driving  the  soldiers  back.  The  situation  became  so 
critical  that  Kaisim  Pasha  determined  to  teach  the  nomads 
a  severe  lesson  once  and  for  all.  He  hurriedly  sent  home 
for  reinforcements,  together  with  ten  battalions  of  artillery, 
which  were  despatched  post-haste  to  his  assistance. 

When  his  forces  were  strengthened  sufficiently  he  issued 
forth,  and  in  turn  caught  the  nomads  by  surprise.  The 
soldiers,  who  had  been  chafing  under  the  reverse  they  had 
suffered  and  their  prolonged  inability  to  revenge  their 
fallen  comrades,  seized  the  opportunity  and  carried  home 
the  attack  with  spirited  energy.  For  a  time  the  bandits 
stood  their  ground,  offering  a  stubborn  resistance.  The 


THE    HOLY   RAILWAY   TO    MECCA  121 

artillery  shelled  them  out  of  their  entrenchments,  and  the 
modern  machine-guns  and  magazine  rifles  so  swept  them 
down  when  they  ventured  into  the  open,  that  at  last  they 
broke  their  ranks  and  fled  in  disorder.  The  Turks  pursued 
and  scattered  their  enemy  to  the  four  winds.  The  Bedouin 
losses  were  tremendous,  and  their  ranks  were  cut  up  so 
completely,  and  their  organisation  was  so  crushed,  that  no 
further  concerted  action  was  taken  to  dispute  the  advance 
of  the  line  to  Mecca.  Occasionally  raids  were  made  upon 
stations  and  completed  sections,  but  such  attacks  were 
found  to  be  attributable  to  independent,  irresponsible  units. 
Comparative  tranquillity  prevailed  until  the  last  division 
connecting  the  sacred  cities  with  the  Red  Sea  was  taken  in 
hand,  and  then  one  day  the  tribesmen  made  another  raid, 
wiping  out  the  whole  of  the  constructional  forces. 

When  the  line  was  commenced,  H.  Meissner  Pasha,  the 
enterprising  German  engineer  selected  to  carry  out  the 
scheme,  was  given  simply  the  two  terminals  of  the  line- 
Damascus  and  Mecca — roughly  1000  miles  apart,  and  in- 
structed to  connect  them  by  rail  as  best  he  could.  It  is  to 
Meissner  Pasha,  therefore,  that  the  full  credit  of  carrying 
the  line  to  success  must  be  extended,  for  upon  his  shoulders 
fell  the  brunt  of  the  work.  He  had  to  plot  its  path,  had 
to  be  at  the  railhead  to  evolve  a  solution  for  a  problem  as 
it  arose,  and  had  to  force  his  way  through,  over,  or  around 
obstacles  as  they  confronted  him.  In  this  task  he  displayed 
considerable  ingenuity  and  resource,  while  he  appeared  to 
be  possessed  of  tireless  energy.  The  handling  of  huge 
corps  of  men  of  varying  nationalities — Turks,  Montene- 
grins, Greeks,  Cretans,  Bedouins,  and  so  on — was  no 
simple  matter  in  itself,  but  he  possessed  the  happy  faculty 
of  infusing  all  who  worked  under  him  with  his  own  enthu- 
siasm and  ambition  to  get  the  line  completed  in  the  shortest 
possible  time.  In  addition  to  these  duties  of  an  essentially 
technical  character,  he  had  to  attend  to  every  want  of  his 
workmen.  Every  drop  of  water,  every  ounce  of  food,  of 
stores,  provisions,  fuel  and  so  forth  had  to  be  hauled  over 
enormous  distances,  and  in  the  depths  of  the  desert  the 


122     RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF    THE    WORLD 

work  of  maintaining  these  supplies  became  stupendous. 
Owing  to  his  splendid  organisation,  however,  his  most 
advanced  outposts  never  once  ran  short  of  any  of  the 
necessaries  of  life. 

The  monumental  features  of  Meissner  Pasha's  construc- 
tional ingenuity,  however,  are  illustrated  in  the  remarkable 
series  of  tunnels,  bridges,  loops  and  windings  by  which 
the  railway  is  carried  through  the  Yarmuk  valley  in  Pales- 
tine between  the  Jordan  and  Deraa,  and  the  negotiation  of 
the  escarpment  south  of  Ma'an,  where  the  line,  after  climb- 
ing the  plateau  to  a  height  of  3,700  feet  above  sea-level, 
drops  suddenly  into  a  yawning  ravine. 

Damascus  was  selected  as  the  starting-point  for  the  rail- 
way, and  the  gauge  of  the  line  extending  northwards  from 
this  terminus  was  adopted.  Consequently,  when  the 
various  intermediate  links  in  the  railway  chain  of  northern 
Asia  Minor  are  connected  up,  it  will  be  possible  to  run  from 
Constantinople  to  the  sacred  cities  without  change  of 
carriage.  The  route  selected  by  the  engineer  is  practically 
the  shortest  possible  between  the  two  opposite  points,  and 
runs  roughly  parallel  with  the  famous  centuries-old  caravan 
route. 

It  was  felt,  however,  although  Damascus  should  be  the 
nominal  northern  terminus,  that  it  would  be  more  advan- 
tageous from  all  points  of  view  to  connect  the  railway  with 
the  Mediterranean  Sea,  so  as  to  secure  an  independent  out- 
let, and  one  more  convenient  for  the  handling  of  the  con- 
structional material  than  Beirut.  The  port  selected  for 
this  purpose  was  Haifa,  on  the  Bay  of  Acre.  This  sea 
branch  runs  inland  broadly  at  right  angles  with  the  main 
line  for  a  distance  of  about  100  miles,  the  junction  being 
at  Deraa.  In  building  this  section,  however,  many  abstruse 
problems  had  to  be  unravelled,  especially  in  the  desolate 
valley  of  the  Yarmuk.  Here  the  line  runs  along  narrow 
ledges  cut  in  the  mountain-side,  plunges  through  massive 
shoulders,  compasses  precipitous  bluffs,  winds  from  one 
side  of  the  gorge  to  the  other,  and  crosses  deep  chasms  by 
means  of  heavy  masonry  and  metal  bridges.  In  this  stretch 


THE    HOLY   RAILWAY  TO   MECCA  123 

the  River  Jordan  is  crossed  by  a  noble  stone  bridge  of  five 
arches — the  only  railway  bridge  across  this  sacred  river — 
some  distance  below  its  flow  from  the  Sea  of  Galilee. 

The  substantial  character  of  this  railway  is  a  feature  that 
most  impresses  the  visitor.  The  bridges  and  viaducts  are 
permanent  structures  wrought  in  stone  or  steel.  Ample 
supplies  of  the  former  material  were  found  in  the  mountain- 
sides. The  steel  structures  are  of  massive  and  lofty  pro- 
portions, and  for  the  most  part  are  supported  upon  heavy 
masonry  piers  carried  deeply  down  into  the  beds  of  the 
rivers,  so  that  the  possibility  of  the  foundations  being 
undermined  by  the  scouring  action  of  the  swiftly-rushing 
waters  is  eliminated. 

In  traversing  Palestine,  the  railway  follows  practically  a 
straight  line  from  Deraa  to  Ma'an,  some  250  miles  to  the 
south,  and  runs  roughly  parallel  with  the  River  Jordan, 
which  is  some  miles  to  the  west,  while  on  the  east  stretches 
the  vast  Stoney  Plain  to  the  valleys  of  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates.  Taken  on  the  whole,  these  250  miles  were  com- 
pleted very  rapidly,  as  there  were  no  adverse  physical 
difficulties  to  be  overcome. 

It  was  after  leaving  Ma'an  to  penetrate  the  wild  and  but 
little-known  Hedjaz  Peninsula  that  the  engineer's  bitterest 
struggle  for  mastery  over  Nature  began.  It  was  as  if  the 
mythical  Genii  of  the  Lamp,  resenting  the  unlocking  of  the 
door  to  their  kingdom,  combined  in  their  efforts  to  baffle 
the  railway  engineer.  Owing  to  the  rugged  character  of 
the  country  the  changes  in  level  are  frequent  and  heavy, 
varying  from  200  or  300  feet  below,  to  nearly  4000  feet 
above,  the  level  of  the  Red  Sea.  There  are  few  main  lines 
in  any  part  of  the  world  that  rise  and  fall  so  extensively 
and  continuously. 

Fortunately,  in  forcing  the  band  of  steel  through  this 
wild  country,  the  engineer  was  able  to  proceed  where  he 
liked.  It  is  simply  a  vast,  silent  waste  of  sand,  with  the 
rocks  and  mountains  jutting  their  heads  to  the  sky  as  the 
island  eyries  of  the  sea  fowl  rise  from  the  sea.  A  deviation 
of  a  few  hundred  feet  to  the  east  or  west  of  the  air-line  to 


124    RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

avoid  a  saucer-like  depression,  with  its  heavy  gradients, 
was  quite  immaterial.  Yet  even  with  these  advantages  it 
was  not  possible  always  to  avoid  sharp  curves  and  counter- 
curves,  heavy  embankments,  or  the  blasting  of  deep  cuttings 
through  large  clumps  of  rocks. 

The  engineer  carried  his  line  south  of  Ma'an  steadily 
upwards  along  the  longitudinal  ridge  of  a  plateau,  until  at 
last  he  gained  an  altitude  of  3,700  feet.  Then  the  bank 
dropped  sheer  into  a  picturesque  wild  chasm  known  as 
Batn-el-Ghoul,  or  "the  Devil's  Belly." 

The  line  reached  the  brink  of  the  precipice.  From  there 
it  had  to  be  carried  to  the  bed  of  the  ravine  which  inclines 
to  Tabuk,  the  next  important  point  on  the  railway.  But 
how  was  that  gorge  to  be  entered?  how  could  the  lower 
level  be  gained?  A  detour  so  as  to  avoid  the  escarpment 
was  impossible,  as  the  ridge  stretched  for  miles  on  either 
hand. 

Meissner  Pasha  hurried  to  the  railhead.  He  surveyed 
every  foot  of  ground  in  the  vicinity,  at  one  time  clinging 
tenaciously  to  a  crag;  at  another  being  swung  over  a  cliff 
by  a  rope;  then  perched  on  a  jagged  pinnacle  eagerly 
searching  for  some  solution  of  his  difficulty.  He  traversed 
the  pilgrim  road,  which  is  but  a  mere  trail  dropping  into 
the  valley  in  a  series  of  steep  steps,  time  after  time.  The 
railway  could  not  be  carried  parallel  with  the  caravan  road 
— that  was  perfectly  obvious.  The  line  of  the  overland 
route,  which  had  for  so  long  been  a  reliable  guide,  now 
deserted  him.  But  the  engineer  refused  to  be  daunted,  and 
after  prolonged  reconnoitring  he  finally  evolved  a  remark- 
able project,  which  proved  a  highly  successful  solution. 

As  he  could  not  carry  the  line  straight  down  into  the 
valley,  he  devised  a  kind  of  spiral,  in  which  the  railway 
effects  what  may  be  best  described  as  a  "corkscrew  "  down 
the  cliff  face.  From  the  brink  of  the  ravine  it  makes  a 
gentle  fall,  the  line  clinging  to  the  precipices  on  a 
gallery  cut  for  the  purpose.  After  descending  for 
some  distance,  it  suddenly  describes  a  sharp  curve  and 
winds  back  again.  Then  comes  another  loop  and  another 


THE   HOLY   RAILWAY   TO   MECCA  125 

redouble,  this  meandering  being  continued  until  the  bed 
of  the  ravine  is  gained.  It  is  an  ingenious  piece  of  work, 
and  will  rank  always  as  one  of  the  most  prominent  wonders 
of  the  railway,  as  well  as  a  monument  to  the  engineer's 
ingenuity. 

Its  realisation,  however,  involved  a  tremendous  struggle. 
The  mountain-sides  are  scarred  and  carved  by  the  elements 
into  most  fantastic  shapes,  with  ugly,  projecting  spurs. 
These  had  to  be  blasted  away,  narrow  ledges  or  shelves  in 
the  cliff-face  widened  or  cut  to  carry  the  metallic  path,  deep 
rifts  filled  in  or  spanned,  and  isolated  peaks,  lifting  their 
jagged  nose  into  the  sky  like  gaunt  sentinels,  avoided. 

This  ravine  is  a  striking  and  curious  specimen  of  the 
handiwork  of  Nature.  There  is  not  a  vestige  of  vegetation, 
and  all  life  is  extinct.  The  masses  of  rock,  turned  into 
grotesque  shapes  by  the  lathe  of  Nature,  stand  out  sharply 
and  boldly  defined  against  the  sky-line,  owing  to  the  clear- 
ness of  the  atmosphere.  They  have  a  peculiar  beauty, 
their  weird  charm  being  accentuated  by  the  vivid  contrast- 
ing colourings  of  the  various  geological  strata  standing 
out  in  distinct  lines.  Looking  down  from  the  brink  of  the 
gorge,  in  the  glare  of  the  noonday  sun  or  the  soft  light  of 
the  sunrise  or  sunset,  the  floor  of  the  valley  resembles  a 
huge  Persian  carpet,  with  its  intense  multitudinous  hues. 

There  is  a  sudden  change  from  this  natural  Oriental 
splendour  of  Nature  after  the  ravine  is  left,  for  the  railway 
passes  over  a  dreary,  sweltering  plain  until  Tabuk,  the 
half-way  house  between  Damascus  and  Mecca,  is  gained. 
Then  comes  another  steady  climb  through  similar  country 
until  the  summit  level  of  the  whole  line  is  gained — 3,750 
feet  above  sea-level,  which  point  also  records  the  high- 
water  mark  of  the  difficulties  that  had  to  be  overcome. 

The  58yth  mile-post  at  Medina  Saleh  indicates  the  most 
southerly  point  to  which  the  Infidel  is  permitted  to  travel 
over  this  railway.  Even  Meissner  Pasha  and  his  staff  of 
engineers  who  were  not  in  the  ranks  of  the  Faithful  did 
not  proceed  farther  towards  Mecca.  It  was  felt  that  Mahom- 
medans,  and  Mahommedans  alone,  should  have  the  glory 


126     RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF    THE    WORLD 

of  carrying  the  metals  into  the  Sacred  City.  It  was  also 
feared  that  the  presence  of  infidels  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
scene  of  the  Prophet's  nativity,  despite  their  mission,  pos- 
sibly might  inflame  religious  prejudices.  Consequently, 
Meissner  Pasha  handed  over  the  reins  to  his  first  lieutenant, 
Muktar  Bey,  the  accomplished  Turkish  engineer  who  had 
assisted  him  loyally  in  the  operations  up  to  this  point. 
Similarly,  all  but  Mahommedan  workmen  were  withdrawn 
from  the  railhead.  The  Ottoman  engineer,  fired  with  his 
former  chief's  enthusiasm  and  energy,  pushed  forward  at 
tip-top  pressure,  and  the  blast  of  the  railway-whistle  was 
heard  among  the  mosques  and  palms  of  the  Sacred  City  for 
the  first  time  early  in  August,  1908. 

The  railway  is  up-to-date  in  every  respect.  The  carriages 
are  of  the  corridor  type,  and  the  pilgrim  who  has  suffered 
the  rigours  of  the  wearisome  overland  journey  can  appre- 
ciate the  luxury,  ease  and  comfort  of  the  Pullman  car. 
The  locomotives  are  also  powerful  creations  of  the  engine- 
builder's  craft.  Owing  to  the  difficulties  attending  the 
supply  of  water  and  fuel  along  the  line,  the  engines  are 
equipped  with  abnormal  facilities  in  this  direction,  the 
largest  and  most  powerful  types  carrying  4000  gallons  of 
water.  The  stations  are  substantial  in  character,  being 
built  of  stone,  so  as  to  offer  defiance  to  Arabs,  who  cannot 
stifle  the  desire  to  raid  now  and  again.  At  Damascus 
extensive  works,  covering  an  area  of  13,000  square  feet, 
have  been  laid  down  for  carrying  out  repairs  to  engines 
and  rolling-stock,  the  workshops  being  fitted  with  the  most 
up-to-date  time-  and  labour-saving  machinery. 

When  Medina  was  brought  into  touch  with  Damascus, 
and  the  widespread  advantages  presented  by  the  railway 
became  appreciated,  it  was  decided  to  push  the  line  to 
Mecca,  300  miles  distant.  Muktar  Bey  was  detailed  to 
control  these  operations,  and,  establishing  a  subsidiary  base 
at  Medina,  he  proceeded  with  the  extension  without  delay. 
Unfortunately,  on  this  final  division  the  native  tribes  broke 
into  hostility  once  more,  and  resumed  their  brigand  tactics 
with  renewed  courage.  On  one  occasion  they  completely 


THE    HOLY   RAILWAY   TO   MECCA          127 

overwhelmed  the  constructional  camp,  massacred  all  the 
workmen,  and  delayed  construction  until  troops  could  be 
brought  up  to  force  their  withdrawal  to  a  safe  distance. 

Considering  the  magnitude  of  this  scheme,  its  com- 
pletion for  about  ,£3,000,000  ($15,000,000),  or  approxi- 
mately ^3000  ($15,000)  per  mile,  is  strikingly  cheap.  This 
low  cost,  however,  is  explicable  from  the  fact  that  the 
Turkish  military  played  a  very  important  part  in  its  con- 
struction, as  many  as  5000  soldiers  being  concentrated  on 
the  task  at  one  time.  The  masonry  work,  steel  bridges  and 
general  earthworks  were  undertaken  by  labour  recruited 
from  all  parts,  only  one  bridge  and  one  heavy  cutting 
being  built  by  the  troops,  who  for  the  most  part  were 
occupied  in  applying  the  finishing  touches  to  the  permanent 
way  and  platelaying. 


CHAPTER    X 

THE   HIGHEST   LINE   IN   THE   WORLD 

WHILE  Europe  offers  the  most  graphic  illustrations  of 
the  engineer's  skill  and  ingenuity  in  overcoming  rugged 
mountains  by  tunnelling  through  their  bases,  one  must  go 
to  South  America  to  discover  the  extraordinary  methods 
he  has  adopted  to  negotiate  similar  obstructions  by  travers- 
ing their  lofty  crests.  It  seems  somewhat  strange,  at  first 
sight,  that  the  "land  of  to-morrow"  should  have  been  the 
scene  of  such  demonstrations  of  genius,  but  when  the 
incalculable  mineral  wealth  buried  in  the  Andes  is  recalled, 
much  of  this  surprise  disappears. 

The  majority  of  the  great  mountain  chains  of  the  world 
appear  puny  in  comparison  with  the  mighty  serrated  back- 
bone of  the  southern  half  of  the  American  continent,  which 
runs  from  the  equator  southwards  to  tumble  abruptly  into 
the  sea  at  Cape  Horn.  Mont  Blanc  and  other  famous  hoary 
European  monarchs  are  insignificant  beside  Aconcagua 
and  many  other  snow-clad  peaks  beetling  to  the  skies  in 
its  vicinity.  The  Cordilleras  present  a  compressed  phalanx 
of  pinnacles  running  in  a  fairly  straight,  even,  and  narrow 
line.  As  the  equator  is  approached  the  needle  points  taper 
to  bluntly  rounded  and  rolling  heads,  but  the  general  con- 
formation is  the  same.  The  result  is  that  the  slopes  are 
very  steep,  and  to  carry  a  railway  through  the  mass  entails 
tortuous  winding  among  the  cones,  with  steep  gradients 
and  tunnels  through  massive  obstructions  of  rock.  The 
cliffs  of  the  Andes  are  probably  unequalled  in  mountain 
topography  for  steepness  and  height,  the  flanks  in  places 
dropping  down  plumb  for  several  thousand  feet. 

There  is  another  peculiar  characteristic  which  severely 
taxes  the  skill  of  the  engineer.  The  range  thrusts  itself 

128 


THE   HIGHEST   LINE   IN   THE  WORLD       129 

skywards  very  closely  to  the  Pacific  seaboard,  so  that  the 
climb  commences  directly  the  coast  is  left,  and  the 
maximum  heights  have  to  be  gained  within  comparatively 
short  distances.  For  instance,  in  the  case  of  the  Oroya 
line,  which  is  the  railway  wonder  of  the  world,  the  traveller 
landing  at  Callao,  in  order  to  reach  Oroya,  138  miles 
inland,  has  to  toil  15,865  feet  towards  the  clouds  in  the 
course  of  107  miles — one  of  the  highest  points  at  which 
the  piston  of  a  railway  engine  throbs. 

This  South  American  line  is  not  an  ordinary  mountain 
railway  :  it  is  an  audacious  marvel  of  engineering  science. 
Nor  does  it  merely  offer  facilities  for  sight-seeing  among 
the  impressive  Cordilleras,  but  acts  as  a  traffic  highway 
between  the  coast  and  the  mines  on  the  high  inland  plateau. 

As  might  be  supposed,  the  difficulties  which  the 
engineers  had  to  break  down  were  numerous  and  stupen- 
dous. Moreover,  the  work  was  extremely  costly.  In  the 
case  of  the  Oroya  road  it  averaged  about  ^60,000,  or 
$300,000,  per  mile,  and  altogether  ,£8,500,000  ($42,500,000) 
were  sunk  in  the  enterprise — more  than  the  total  cost  of 
the  St.  Gotthard  railway,  with  its  famous  tunnel  and  172 
miles  of  track. 

The  first  attempt  to  subjugate  this  range  by  the  iron 
road  was  made  in  the  'sixties  by  a  daring  Philadelphia 
engineer,  Henry  Meiggs.  His  idea  was  ambitious  in  the 
extreme.  He  proposed  to  start  from  Callao,  lift  the  metals 
over  the  crests  of  the  mountains,  drop  down  the  other  side 
on  to  the  highlands,  and  to  push  across  the  plateau  until 
he  gained  a  point  on  the  mighty  Amazon  which  could  be 
reached  by  steamer  from  the  Atlantic.  By  this  means  the 
Pacific  seaports  of  South  America  would  be  brought  into 
closer  touch  with  the  markets  of  the  Old  World,  avoiding 
the  protracted  and  hazardous  journey  round  Cape  Horn. 
That  the  idea  was  never  carried  to  success  was  one  of  the 
sorry  tricks  of  Fate.  Internecine  strife  and  wars  with 
neighbouring  states  sapped  the  financial  strength  of  Peru 
to  such  an  extent  that  there  was  not  enough  money  to 
complete  this  grand  scheme.  Possibly  some  day  the  steel 


130    RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

thread  will  be  picked  up  again  at  Oroya  and  forced  to  its 
original  objective. 

For  the  first  107  miles  this  railway  makes  a  continual 
ascent;  there  is  not  a  single  foot  of  downhill  in  the  whole 
distance.  Work  was  commenced  in  1870,  and  was  pushed 
forward  so  energetically  that  in  the  course  of  twelve  months 
Meiggs  had  completed  20  miles  of  the  line,  and  had  the 
earthworks  well  advanced  as  far  as  Chosica,  some  33  miles 
out  of  Callao.  In  order  to  ease  his  task  as  much  as  pos- 
sible,  the  engineer  decided  to  follow  the  Rimac  River  into 
the  mountains.  But  as  the  innermost  recesses  of  the  Cor- 
dilleras are  gained,  the  river  narrows  considerably,  until  it 
plunges  merely  through  a  slender  defile,  the  walls  of  the 
peaks  dropping  down  precipitously  into  the  water.  The 
result  was  that  the  engineer  found  it  very  difficult  to  find 
a  natural  lane  for  his  metals,  so  he  had  to  hew  and  blast 
galleries,  to  swing  first  from  one  bank  to  the  other,  in 
order  to  seize  the  slightest  foothold. 

He  had  plunged  47  miles  into  the  mountains  and  had 
gained  an  altitude  of  about  one  mile,  when  he  was  brought 
to  a  dead  stop.  The  mountain  along  which  he  had 
crawled  laboriously  broke  off  abruptly.  Further  advance 
was  impossible.  To  have  cut  a  tunnel  would  have  been  a 
herculean  task,  and  as  the  mountain  wall  dropped  straight 
down  below,  and  towered  to  a  dizzy  height  above  him,  he 
found  himself  in  a  quandary.  A  few  feet  immediately 
above  him,  however,  he  espied  a  ledge  running  parallel 
with  that  on  which  he  had  laid  his  track.  He  resolved  to 
gain  that  upper  gallery,  but  the  crucial  question  was, 
How? 

Then  he  hit  upon  a  brilliant  idea.  It  was  something 
new  and  untried  in  railway  engineering,  but  as  he  had 
already  tested  all  existing  methods  to  gain  the  point  at 
which  he  now  stood,  there  was  no  alternative  but  to  devise 
new  ways  and  means  of  overcoming  perplexing  situations 
as  they  arose,  despite  the  apparent  novelty  of  the  solutions. 
He  resolved  to  lift  the  track  from  the  lower  to  the  upper 
ledge  by  a  "V-switch." 


MEIGGS'    MASTERPIECE— THE   V-SWITCH,  BY   MEANS   OF   WHICH    THE    RAILWAY 

IS    LIFTED    FROM    ONE    LEVEL   TO   ANOTHER,    SHOWING 

TURNTABLE   AND   METHOD   OF   OPERATION 


THE    INFIERNILLO   BRIDGE 


It  is  approached  at  either  end  through  a  tunnel,  and  owing  to  the  precipitous  cliffs  the  men 
had  to  be  slung  out  from  the  sides  in  rope  loops  and  cradles  to  set  the  steel. 


JB 

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THE    HIGHEST   LINE   IN   THE   WORLD      131 

The  embankment  on  the  outside  of  the  track  at  the  point 
he  had  gained  was  levelled  off,  and  a  small  turntable  was 
erected.  From  the  latter  two  short  lines  were  laid  down  at 
an  angle  to  the  track  in  the  form  of  a  widely  opened  "V," 
with  the  turntable  at  the  apex.  The  main  line  cuts  across 
the  top  of  the  "V,"  forming  a  triangle,  and  continues  a 
short  distance  beyond.  The  manner  in  which  the  train  is 
lifted  from  the  one  level  to  the  other  is  as  follows.  The 
engine  pulls  it  up  the  lower  line  on  to  the  section  crossing 
the  top  of  the  V,  and  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  between  its 
two  angular  limbs.  The  engine  is  uncoupled,  and  runs 
down  one  leg  of  the  V  on  to  the  turntable,  which  is  then 
swung  round  until  the  engine  faces  the  other  arm  of  the  V, 
up  which  it  passes  until  it  gains  the  main  line.  It  is  now 
at  the  rear  of  the  train  which  it  was  pulling  a  few  minutes 
before  The  engine  is  coupled  up,  and  the  train  is  pushed 
backwards  until  it  is  over  the  switch  connecting  with  the 
upper  level.  It  then  proceeds  forward  in  the  usual  manner. 
In  reality  it  makes  a  zigzag  course  up  the  mountain-side. 

This  ingenious  means  of  overcoming  such  a  difficulty 
was  tried  first  at  San  Bartholome,  and  proved  so  very 
economical  and  simple  a  solution  of  a  grave  difficulty  that 
it  was  freely  introduced  by  the  inventor  whenever  similar 
conditions  were  encountered.  True,  the  process  of  un- 
coupling and  recoupling  the  engine  occasions  a  little 
delay,  but  the  switch  was  cheaper  and  quite  as  effective 
as  a  loop,  even  if  the  latter  could  have  been  built,  for  it 
was  found  possible  to  lay  the  turntable  between  two  tiers 
of  metals  on  a  gradient  not  exceeding  i  in  25.  Altogether 
there  are  22  of  these  switches  on  the  system.  The  majority 
of  them  are  of  the  simple  type  as  we  have  described  above, 
but  in  some  cases  there  is  a  double  zigzag  when  the  differ- 
ence in  level  was  extreme,  and  did  not  permit  of  the  con- 
necting bank  line  being  raised  at  an  easy  grade.  The 
adoption  of  the  "Meiggs  V-switch,"  as  it  is  popularly 
called,  saved  the  engineer  thousands  of  pounds. 

In  one  case  the  switch  is  set  in  a  very  precarious  situa- 
tion, for  the  climbing  line  winds  along  a  perilous  ledge 

K  2 


1 32     RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

blasted  out  of  the  solid  flank  of  the  peak,  and  the  traveller's 
heart  thumps  every  time  the  train  lurches  as  he  looks  down 
upon  the  curling  river  far,  far  below  on  the  one,  and  the 
mountain  wall  combing  some  2000  feet  above  him  on  the 
other,  hand.  The  Oroya  line  has  been  described  as  a 
railway  of  sensations,  and  it  is  an  apt  description.  During 
the  process  of  "V-ing"  a  train  the  voyager  has  ample 
opportunity  to  contemplate  his  peculiar  situation  at  leisure. 

"  Highly  ingenious  and  simple,"  was  the  verdict  of  the 
railway  world  when  they  realised  Meiggs'  handiwork. 
"But  what  is  going  to  happen  if  a  descending  train  runs 
away  at  one  of  these  switches?  Will  it  make  a  bee-line 
for  the  bottom  of  the  canyon  through  the  air,  or  pile  up 
against  the  dead-stop  ?  " 

Meiggs,  however,  did  not  anticipate  trains  running 
amok  in  this  manner,  but  he  guarded  against  any  such 
contingency,  because  brakes  sometimes  will  fail  to  act  on 
a  descending  grade.  Consequently,  at  the  end  of  each  line 
in  a  V-switch  he  provided  a  substantial  bank  of  earth. 
This  was  a  fortunate  precaution.  Some  years  ago  a  train, 
in  proceeding  from  the  upper  to  the  lower  level,  did  run 
away  on  the  falling  bank.  It  crashed  into  the  solid  em- 
bankment at  the  dead-end,  and  came  to  a  stop  in  an 
ungainly,  heterogeneous  mass  of  twisted  ironwork  and 
splintered  wood.  Nobody  was  hurt,  the  debris  was 
removed,  and  the  runaway  engine  was  recovered,  over- 
hauled, replaced  in  service,  and  is  running  to-day,  little 
the  worse  for  its  misadventure. 

Owing  to  the  peaks  of  the  Cordilleras  being  separated 
from  one  another  by  yawning  ravines,  extensive  bridging 
became  imperative.  Some  are  short,  insignificant  spans ; 
others  are  lofty,  spidery  structures,  which  were  completed 
at  the  expenditure  of  many  human  lives  from  disease  and 
accident.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  railway  earned  an 
unsavoury  reputation  owing  to  the  high  mortality  that 
attended  its  realisation. 

The  Verrugas  bridge  was  the  greatest  offender  in  this 
respect.  It  was  the  greatest  undertaking  of  its  type  on  the 


THE   HIGHEST   LINE   IN   THE   WORLD      133 

line.  It  is  575  feet  in  length,  and  cleaves  the  air  225  feet 
above  the  bed  of  the  ravine.  There  are  bigger  and  loftier 
bridges  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  but  few  have  been  so 
troublesome  to  erect.  At  the  time  it  was  undertaken  it  was 
the  most  remarkable  structure  of  its  kind,  and  by  the  time 
it  was  completed  ,£12,600,  or  $63,000,  had  been  expended. 
It  lies  at  an  altitude  of  5,839  feet,  and  was  carried  on  three 
masonry  piers,  the  centre  and  main  support  being  built  up 
from  the  bed  of  the  gorge.  This  pier  measured  50  feet 
square  at  the  base,  and  was  of  solid  masonry,  thus  forming 
a  substantial  plinth  for  the  slender  iron  superstructure. 

All  the  component  parts  of  this  bridge  had  to  be  kept 
within  certain  limits  of  dimension  and  weight,  to  enable 
them  to  be  hauled  up  from  the  coast  and  set  in  position  on 
the  site.  Large  gangs  of  workmen  were  crowded  upon  the 
work,  because,  until  this  bridge  was  set  in  position,  material 
could  not  be  transported  to  the  other  side  of  the  gorge  for 
the  continuation  of  the  grade. 

But  the  task  was  dogged  by  ill-luck.  Work  was  in  full 
swing,  when  a  mysterious  and  malignant  disease  broke 
out.  So  furiously  did  it  rage  that  the  men  were  swept  off 
like  flies.  There  was  no  means  of  checking  its  ravages. 
It  became  known  far  and  wide  as  the  "Verrugas  fever." 
It  resisted  diagnosis  and  treatment,  but  there  was  no  deny- 
ing its  deadliness.  As  a  result  labour  gave  the  district  a 
wide  berth.  It  struck  down  natives  and  white  men  indis- 
criminately. Just  how  many  men  succumbed  to  the  attacks 
of  this  epidemic  probably  never  will  be  known.  Men  con- 
tracted the  malady,  died,  and  were  buried  all  within  the 
space  of  a  few  hours  after  reaching  the  site;  indeed,  it  is 
chronicled  that  one  man  fell  a  victim  after  crossing  the 
bridge  only  once. 

This  mysterious  and  terrible  scourge  threatened  to  stop 
the  whole  enterprise,  though  Meiggs  spared  no  effort  and 
money  to  bring  about  its  completion.  The  most  attractive 
inducements  were  held  out  to  workmen  to  come  up  and 
risk  their  lives,  but  only  the  more  adventurous,  fascinated 
by  the  high  wages,  dared  to  face  death  in  an  uncanny 


i34    RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

form.  It  was  mainly  through  the  efforts  of  such  happy- 
go-lucky  spirits  that  the  gorge  was  spanned  ultimately. 
Meiggs  himself  appeared  to  bear  a  charmed  life,  for  he 
haunted  the  fated  gorge  day  and  night.  But  the  awful 
experience  seriously  undermined  his  health,  his  constitu- 
tion was  wrecked,  and  he  was  changed  into  an  old  man. 

Still  he  clung  tenaciously  to  his  enterprise.  The  gorge 
crossed,  he  found  himself  among  the  wildest  fastnesses  of 
the  Andes.  The  mountains  became  steeper,  the  interven- 
ing gulches  deeper  and  more  difficult  to  cross.  Landslides 
were  of  such  frequent  occurrence  that  they  might  well  have 
struck  terror  into  his  heart.  Yet  he  fought  his  way  for- 
ward. Blasting  became  heavier  and  heavier,  wide  sweep- 
ing curves  more  frequent,  the  ascent  steeper  and  steeper, 
and  tunnelling  through  projecting  spurs  more  frequent. 

In  these  upper  reaches  the  trains  play  a  gigantic  game 
of  hide-and-seek,  darting  in  and  out  among  the  labyrinth 
of  tunnels.  In  a  distance  of  50  miles  he  had  to  drive  his 
path  through  no  less  than  57  of  these  obstructions,  while 
altogether  there  are  65  tunnels  in  the  138  miles  of  the 
railway's  length.  The  line  doubles  and  redoubles  upon 
itself  in  the  most  bewildering  manner  in  order  to  gain 
points  on  the  mountain-sides.  In  the  course  of  n  miles 
between  Matucana  and  Tamboraque  this  scaling  by  means 
of  the  zigzag  was  exceedingly  heavy.  Standing  at  the 
latter  station  and  looking  down,  one  can  see  tier  after  tier 
of  the  gleaming  metals,  until  they  are  lost  to  sight  far 
below. 

Five  miles  beyond  Tamboraque  another  remarkable 
achievement  had  to  be  accomplished.  The  line  tunnels  a 
peak,  to  emerge  upon  the  brink  of  a  drop  into  the  river 
below  as  straight  as  a  brick  wall.  On  the  opposite  side 
is  another  towering  pinnacle.  To  span  the  gulf  a  heavy 
bridge  was  necessary.  It  is  called  Infiernillo  Bridge,  and 
never  was  a  name  more  fittingly  bestowed.  Its  erection 
by  false  work  or  scaffolding  was  out  of  the  question,  as  in 
this  region  not  a  tree  exists.  It  had  to  be  built  out  from 
the  sides,  the  men  being  suspended  in  cradles  and  loops 


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THE    HIGHEST    TUNNEL    IN    THE   WORLD    UNDER   CONSTRUCTION 

The  Galera  tunnel,  3,855  feet  in  length  and  15,665  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
on  the  Oroya  railway. 


THE   HIGHEST    LINE   IN   THE   WORLD      135 

dangling  from  ropes  attached  to  brackets  driven  into  the 
solid  rock  above.  The  builders  found  swinging  the  tools 
from  such  crazy  footholds  to  be  perilous  in  the  extreme, 
but  there  were  no  other  means  by  which  the  bridge  could 
be  erected.  It  is  a  frail  link  between  two  dark  yawning 
mouths  in  opposite  towering  crests,  and  the  traveller  as  he 
rattles  across  scarcely  can  quell  a  shudder. 

So  energetically  did  Meiggs  pursue  his  self-appointed 
task  that  in  six  years  he  had  carried  the  line  88J  miles  into 
the  Andes,  and  had  gained  an  altitude  of  12,215^  feet.  All 
the  men  that  he  could  possibly  procure  were  pressed  into 
service ;  at  one  time  the  railway  gave  employment  to  8000 
labourers.  The  amount  of  blasting  necessary  to  prepare 
the  road-bed  for  this  single  line  of  standard  track  was  enor- 
mous, something  like  500,000  pounds  of  explosives  being 
used  very  month.  The  strain  inseparable  from  such  an 
enterprise  told  its  tale  at  last  upon  the  bold  engineer, 
whose  iron  constitution  could  not  withstand  the  anxieties 
and  worries  of  the  Verrugas  fever,  and  the  exposure  to  a 
rarefied  atmosphere,  without  receiving  an  indelible  mark. 
The  first  signs  of  a  complete  breakdown  appeared  as  the 
railway  was  approaching  Chicla,  and  when  this  point  was 
gained  in  1877  he  succumbed. 

The  removal  of  the  guiding  spirit  brought  the  whole 
undertaking  to  a  stop.  Meiggs  had  completed  two-thirds 
of  the  undertaking,  and  had  broken  the  back  of  the  diffi- 
culties. For  fourteen  years  not  another  foot  of  line  was 
graded.  At  last  the  Peruvian  Corporation  of  London, 
which  had  taken  over  the  railway,  settled  a  contract  for  its 
completion  with  William  Thorndike,  who  also  hailed  from 
Philadelphia. 

The  new  engineer  carried  the  line  a  further  3,450  feet 
above  the  sea,  following  the  surveys  of  Meiggs,  and  then 
became  confronted  with  his  greatest  obstacle — the  piercing 
of  the  summit  crest.  Thorndike  had  to  hew  his  way 
through  the  bosom  of  a  pinnacle  for  over  3,855  feet  at  an 
altitude  at  which  such  work  never  had  been  attempted 
before.  The  trying  character  of  the  situation  was  aug- 


136    RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

merited  by  the  rarity  of  the  atmosphere,  and  the  fact  that 
he  had  to  force  his  way  through  the  region  of  the  terrible 
mountain  sickness,  with  a  low  prevailing  temperature  such 
as  is  encountered  in  the  region  of  eternal  snow  and  ice. 
Such  conditions  retarded  the  boring  of  the  Galera  tunnel, 
as  it  is  called,  more  than  the  stern  resistance  of  the  rock. 
The  workmen  invariably  fell  victims  to  the  sickness,  though 
the  undertaking  was  not  accompanied  with  the  heavy  mor- 
tality that  characterised  the  building  of  the  Verrugas 
bridge  far  below.  Mountain  drilling,  blasting,  excavating, 
and  the  removal  of  the  heavy  spoil  proved  exacting  and 
fatiguing,  and  a  man  could  work  only  for  a  few  hours  at 
a  stretch.  By  skilful  organisation  and  careful  husband- 
ing of  his  forces,  however,  the  engineer  succeeded  in 
forcing  the  metal  track  through  the  mountain  at  record 
speed. 

The  Galera  tunnel  is  the  crowning  point  of  a  magnificent 
achievement.  In  the  centre  you  stand  on  the  Great  Divide 
of  the  South  Americas,  nearly  16,000  feet  above  the  ocean. 
When  a  bucket  of  water  is  upset,  one  half  of  the  liquid  runs 
eastward  towards  the  Atlantic,  while  the  other  flows  west- 
ward to  the  Pacific.  Oroya  is  31^-  miles  distant  from  the 
eastern  portal  of  the  tunnel  on  the  great  inland  plateau  of 
the  continent,  and  only  a  little  less  than  3,500  feet  below  it. 
On  this  section  construction  was  very  rapid,  as  there  were 
no  untoward  difficulties  to  be  overcome. 

About  the  same  time  as  the  Oroya  railway  was  com- 
menced another  great  line  was  undertaken  some  miles  to 
the  south.  In  this  instance  the  port  of  Mollendo  was  the 
Pacific  terminus,  the  inland  objective  being  Puno,  on  the 
shores  of  Lake  Titicaca,  that  remarkable  inland  sea  nest- 
ling among  the  crests  of  the  Alps  some  14,660  feet  above 
the  Pacific.  The  total  length  of  this  line  is  332  miles,  and 
it  divides  with  the  Antofagasta  railway  to  the  south  the 
traffic  between  La  Paz  and  the  seaboard.  Though  it  does 
not  compare  with  the  Oroya  or  Central  railway  of  Peru 
as  an  engineering  achievement,  yet  it  possesses  certain 
individual  characteristics,  the  tumbled  mountain  country 


w  w 

PH  B 

*  H 

O  2 


LOOKING  THROUGH  THE  TUNNELS  ON  THE  OROYA  RAILWAY 

An  exhilarating  coast  at  45  miles  an  hour  for  107  miles  can  be  made  from  Galera  tunnel 
to  Callao  upon  the  small  hand-car  shown  in  the  photograph. 


THE   HIGHEST   LINE   IN   THE   WORLD      137 

experienced  farther  north  giving  way  to  open  expanses  of 
bleak,  dismal  desert. 

This  line  in  its  ascent  of  the  Andes  skirts  the  base  of 
that  most  majestic  of  mountains,  the  smoking  El  Misti, 
whose  snow-topped  crater  rises  like  a  grim  sentinel  far 
above  the  other  visible  points  of  the  mountain  chain. 
Here  the  mountains  are  nobler  and  wider  apart,  so  that 
one  can  grasp  better  their  magnificent  proportions,  while 
their  flanks  are  not  so  scarred,  and  there  is  an  absence  of 
those  fearsome,  yawning  ravines.  In  making  the  ascent 
the  line  describes  broad  sweeping  curves  to  avoid  project- 
ing peaks,  and  throughout  the  whole  distance  there  is  a 
notable  relief  from  the  zigzags  and  switches  so  frequent 
on  the  sister  line. 

On  this  road,  however,  the  moving  sand  threatened  to 
be  an  implacable  enemy.  In  the  higher  altitudes  the  sand 
is  piled  up  into  quaint  little  cones  ranging  from  ten  to 
twenty  feet  in  height,  and  from  the  distance  their  incal- 
culable number  and  regular  lines  present  the  appearance 
of  a  vast  army  of  men  grimed  and  covered  with  the  dust, 
which  illusion  becomes  emphasised  when  they  are  seen 
moving  across  the  plains  in  a  steady,  rhythmic  manner 
under  the  influence  of  the  wind.  When  the  railway  was 
built  it  was  anticipated  that  elaborate  precautions  would 
be  requisite  to  keep  the  track  clear  of  this  encumbrance, 
but  it  was  found  that  the  trains  could  plough  their  way 
through  the  mass  with  little  difficulty. 

In  the  higher  levels  the  sand  gives  way  to  a  country  of 
broken  rock — a  land  absolutely  void  of  any  sign  of  life. 
This  monotonous  waste  continues  to  the  shores  of  the  lake, 
where  the  dank  water-grass  and  limpid  wrater  offer  a  wel- 
come relief  to  the  aridity  experienced  for  so  many  hours. 
This  railway  was  constructed  with  remarkable  rapidity  for 
the  Land  of  Paradoxes,  as  the  whole  332  miles  were  built 
in  five  years,  and  thus  the  isolated  waters  of  Titicaca  were 
linked  with  the  Pacific  by  the  iron  road. 

Not  only  was  this  railway  much  cheaper  to  construct 
than  the  Central  or  Oroya  line,  but  its  maintenance  is  not 


138    RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

so  harassing  as  the  former  system.  The  engineers  of  the 
Oroya  road  are  engaged  in  a  constant  war  with  the 
elements.  The  landslide  is  the  most  relentless  foe  that 
has  to  be  combated.  A  big  slip  on  a  slope,  an  avalanche 
of  snow,  huge  boulders,  and  miscellaneous  debris  rattle 
down  the  mountain-sides  with  terrific  fury,  blotting  out 
the  track  and  sweeping  bridges  away  in  their  mad  career. 

The  Verrugas  bridge  was  dogged  by  ill-fortune  after  its 
completion,  for  in  one  of  these  visitations  the  whole  struc- 
ture was  demolished  through  the  main  central  pier  being 
knocked  away.  The  tangled  and  twisted  metal  was  left 
rusting  in  the  ravine,  for  the  bridge-builders'  art  had 
advanced  considerably  since  the  old  bridge  was  designed, 
and  in  reconstruction  it  was  found  possible  to  span  the 
gorge  on  the  cantilever  principle  without  the  central  sup- 
port. All.  the  other  bridges  on  the  railway  are  being 
rebuilt  gradually  on  these  lines,  and  when  this  task  is 
completed  the  engineer  will  have  one  danger  the  less  to 
fear — the  collapse  of  the  slender  link  of  communication 
across  the  gulches. 

One  can  enjoy  a  most  exhilarating  experience  on  this 
railway.  This  is  the  descent  from  Galera  tunnel  to  Callao 
on  a  small  hand-car.  It  is  a  glorious  coast  downhill  for 
no  less  than  107  miles.  One  rushes  down  inclines,  swings 
round  curves,  threads  tunnels,  and  whisks  across  gorges 
at  the  exhilarating  speed  of  45  miles  an  hour.  It  is  a 
unique  sensation — one  of  the  many  marvels  associated  with 
this  remarkable  railway,  which  is  not  merely  a  striking 
evidence  of  civilisation,  but  a  perpetual  monument  to  the 
7000  lives  devoted  to  its  construction. 


SETTING    UP   THE    WORLD'S    RAILWAY   BUILDING    RECORD   IN   AFRICA 

Natives  laying  sf  miles  of  track  in  10  hours,  on  the  Cape  to  Cairo  Railway. 


CHAPTER    XI 

CECIL  RHODES'   DREAM — FROM  THE  CAPE  TO   CAIRO 
I. — Northwards  from  Cape  Town 

FEW  phrases  have  become  so  familiar  to  the  ear  as  from 
the  "Cape  to  Cairo."  It  is  a  phrase  that  has  made  history, 
though  perhaps  not  so  rapidly  as  its  creator  anticipated. 
When  Cecil  Rhodes  first  cast  his  eyes  from  north  to  south, 
and  conceived  the  idea  of  binding  the  two  extreme  points 
of  the  African  continent  together,  there  is  no  indication 
that  he  experienced  great  difficulty  in  finding  a  title  for  his 
undertaking.  There  was  Cairo  in  the  north,  and  Cape 
Town  in  the  south.  He  aspired  to  join  the  two  by  rail. 
Consequently,  from  the  "Cape  to  Cairo"  was  obvious. 
Probably  the  alliteration  caught  his  fancy,  and  conveyed 
his  complete  thought  so  forcibly  in  three  words,  and  in  a 
manner  that  could  not  fail  to  impress  the  public,  that  it 
inadvertently  flew  through  his  mind. 

When  the  materialisation  of  this  vision  commenced,  the 
general  knowledge  of  the  interior  of  the  continent  had  not 
been  widened  very  appreciably  since  the  travels  of  Living- 
stone and  Stanley.  It  was  "Dark"  in  the  truest  sense  of 
the  word,  and  conquest  either  by  tne  mysteries  of  peace 
or  the  arts  of  war  was  necessary  before  the  steel  rail  could 
be  driven  either  northward  or  southward.  However,  it  was 
determined  to  carry  the  idea  to  fulfilment — the  question  of 
the  penetration  of  the  hostile  country  could  be  taken  in 
hand  when  the  railway  was  within  measurable  distance  of 
its  borders  so  far  as  Rhodes  was  concerned,  while  in  the 
north  the  English  Government  had  decided  to  settle  terms 
with  the  Mahdi. 

There  was  one  benefit  accruing  from  the  empire-builder's 
dream — he  gave  the  engineers  of  South  Africa  elbow-room 

139 


140    RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

in  which  to  display  their  ability  within  certain  limits.  It 
might  be  said  that  he  inaugurated  a  new  railway-construc- 
tion policy  so  far  as  South  Africa  was  concerned.  The 
railway-builders  had  an  extensive  territory  to  cover,  and 
they  appeared  to  cherish  the  belief  that  the  best  means  by 
which  this  conquest  could  be  achieved  was  upon  the  most 
expensive  lines  possible.  Thus,  for  instance,  the  railway 
network  in  Natal,  the  Transvaal  and  Orange  Free  State 
cost  about  ^15,000,  or  $75,000,  per  mile,  and  those  of  Cape 
Colony  about  ^"10,000,  or  $50,000,  per  mile — sums  out  of 
all  proportion  to  the  railway  needs  of  the  time,  and  which 
served  to  commit  the  countries  to  a  heavy  capital  outlay 
and  interest  charges.  When  Cecil  Rhodes  outlined  his 
project  he  set  himself  to  a  limit  of  about  ,£5,000,  or  $25,000, 
per  mile. 

Such  a  line  was  a  pioneer  road  in  the  fullest  sense  of  the 
word,  but  it  would  suffice  to  meet  the  demands  of  the 
country  for  many  years  to  come,  and  could  be  improved 
as  circumstances  demanded.  The  time  will  come,  doubt- 
less, when  a  standard-gauge  road  from  the  waters  of  the 
Mediterranean  to  the  southern  end  of  the  continent  will 
become  imperative,  but  a  few  decades  will  have  to  pass 
before  the  line  of  3  feet  6  inches  gauge  becomes  inadequate. 

The  Cape  to  Cairo  is  remarkable  in  many  respects  :  in 
fact,  it  might  be  described  as  a  string  of  record-breaking 
feats  in  railway  engineering.  In  the  first  place  it  was  the 
first  trans-continental  road  ever  to  be  driven  longitudinally 
through  a  continent — the  coast  to  coast  lines  in  other  parts 
of  the  world  cut  across  the  continent  from  east  to  west. 
When  completed  it  will  be  the  longest  continuous  trunk 
iron  road  ever  built.  In  its  length  are  comprised  both  the 
highest  and  longest  bridges  in  Africa,  in  its  realisation  the 
highest  speed  in  track-laying  has  been  recorded,  and  it  has 
been  driven  steadily  forward  under  conditions  such  as 
never  have  attended  the  realisation  of  any  comparative 
project — war,  plague  and  famine. 

When  the  scheme  was  commenced  the  railways  of  the 
southern  colony  had  penetrated  647  miles  up-country  from 


FROM   THE    CAPE   TO    CAIRO  141 

Cape  Town  to  the  diamond  mines  at  Kimberley.  Con- 
sequently, Diamondopolis  was  selected  as  the  starting-point 
for  the  northward  advance,  through  the  hinterland  now 
known  as  Rhodesia.  The  first  rail  out  of  Kimberley  was 
laid  in  1889,  and  by  October,  1894,  it  had  gained  Maf eking, 
223  miles  beyond. 

While  this  part  of  the  work  was  under  way  the  colonisa- 
tion of  Mashonaland  had  proceeded,  and  had  progressed 
so  favourably  that  the  railway's  advance  became  an  urgent 
necessity,  especially  as  the  Matabele  under  Lobengula 
were  giving  signs  of  trouble,  and  it  was  essential  that  the 
latter  should  be  subdued.  So  in  1896  the  dull,  grey  snake 
resumed  its  tortuous  crawl  to  the  north.  Further  trouble 
was  experienced  at  this  juncture,  and  retarded  operations  to 
a  material  degree.  The  deadly  rinderpest  broke  out,  and 
swept  off  the  settlers'  cattle  like  flies.  Transport  was  para- 
lysed, and  the  engineers  were  called  upon  to  perform  a 
superhuman  task  to  pour  supplies  and  material  forward. 
As  animals  were  unavailable,  traction  engines  had  to  be 
brought  up-country  to  ply  between  the  point  where  the 
locomotive  stopped  and  the  construction  camps  strung  out 
ahead. 

However,  Rhodes  decided  that  the  rails  must  reach 
Buluwayo  before  the  end  of  1897.  Seeing  that  492  miles 
divided  the  railhead  from  the  latter  point,  this  was  no  mean 
order;  but  Messrs.  Pauling  &  Co.,  the  contractors,  pro- 
mised that  his  wishes  should  be  fulfilled.  Large  forces 
of  natives  were  whipped  up,  and  by  superhuman  effort  the 
apparently  impossible  was  achieved,  the  492  miles  of 
metals  being  laid  in  500  working  days. 

As  might  be  supposed  from  the  low  cost  of  the  line 
(;£4>5°o>  or  $22,500,  per  mile),  the  engineering  work  was 
not  of  an  elaborate  character.  Rapidity  of  construction, 
combined  with  low  cost,  were  the  two  governing  considera- 
tions that  had  to  be  borne  in  mind,  for  the  sooner  railway 
transportation  was  provided,  the  earlier  settlement  would 
take  place.  The  terms  governing  construction  demanded 
that  the  line  should  be  of  such  a  character  as  "would  be 


142    RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

capable  of  effectually  conveying  traffic  at  a  speed  of  twelve 
miles  an  hour  on  completion,  and  that  grades  and  curves 
were  not  to  be  sharper  and  heavier  than  generally  prevailed 
upon  a  line  of  this  gauge."  Ballasting  was  only  to  be  used 
on  such  portions  of  the  line  as  was  necessary  to  ensure  the 
safe  running  of  the  trains  during  the  rainy  season. 

In  laying  the  road  very  little  regard  was  paid  to  forma- 
tion, and  wherever  the  surface  of  the  ground  was  even  it 
was  followed,  the  steel  sleepers  being  packed  with  the 
minimum  of  ballast  to  give  a  moderately  smooth  running 
top.  The  shallower  streams  and  rivers  were  not  bridged, 
but  the  railway  was  carried  across  over  a  ford.  If  the  water 
rose  above  the  track  a  few  inches,  a  thrilling  spectacle  was 
offered  when  a  train  crossed.  It  would  creep  carefully 
down  the  bank  and  crash  full  tilt  into  the  water,  sending 
up  a  column  of  spray  which  entirely  obliterated  the  front 
of  the  engine  from  view.  Later,  the  line  was  overhauled 
and  brought  into  conformity  with  modern  requirements, 
bridges  of  steel  being  introduced  to  span  all  obstructions 
of  this  character.  Timber  was  impossible,  owing  to  the 
ravages  of  white  ants,  though  creosoted  wood  was  found  to 
offer  a  substitute  for  the  metal  for  a  short  period,  and  was 
adopted  sparingly. 

Buluwayo  lies  at  an  altitude  of  4,400  feet,  and  from  this 
point  the  line  falls  steadily  until  it  gains  the  Gwaai  River, 
1,200  feet  lower.  Crossing  this  waterway,  the  line  makes 
a  straight  cut  across  the  flat,  sandy  and  wooded  country 
for  71  miles  as  the  crow  flies,  to  enter  the  Wankie  coalfield. 

In  this  district  the  surface  run  could  not  be  continued, 
and  consequently  heavy  cuttings  and  embankments  had  to 
be  carried  out  over  a  distance  of  59  miles. 

Beyond  the  Wankie  coal  territory,  and  282  miles  north 
of  Buluwayo,  the  line  ran  up  against  the  first  serious 
physical  difficulty,  but  one  of  such  proportions  as  to  make 
amends  on  the  part  of  Nature  for  the  easiness  of  the  grading 
hitherto.  This  was  the  Victoria  Falls  on  the  Zambesi 
River,  and  the  location  of  the  line  compelled  a  crossing  of 
this  magnificent  waterway  just  below  the  cataract,  where 


FROM    THE  CAPE   TO   CAIRO  143 

the  water,  after  tumbling  over  the  ledge,  is  forced  through 
a  deep,  narrow  gorge  400  feet  in  depth. 

The  situation  demanded  the  consummation  of  some 
monumental  piece  of  work.  The  Niagara  gorge  had  been 
bridged,  but  the  task  of  spanning  that  chasm  was  mere 
child's  play  in  comparison  with,  that  confronting  the 
engineers  below  the  Victoria  Falls.  The  cliffs  are  sheer 
practically,  for  the  canyon  through  which  the  water  rushes 
for  some  20  miles  is  but  a  fissure  in  the  earth's  crust. 

The  surveys,  which  were  carried  out  with  great  difficulty, 
showed  that  the  break  would  have  to  be  bridged  in  a  single 
span  about  500  feet  in  length  from  brink  to  brink,  with  the 
rails  over  420  feet  above  low  water.  For  purposes  of  com- 
parison, it  may  be  mentioned  that,  although  the  structure 
of  the  same  type  thrown  across  the  Niagara  gorge  to  carry 
the  Grand  Trunk  railway  from  Canadian  to  American 
soil  has  a  main  span  50  feet  wider,  while  the  bridge  itself 
is  almost  twice  as  long,  the  rails  are  laid  only  a  little  more 
than  half  the  height  above  the  water — 226,  as  compared 
with  420  feet. 

One  early  difficulty  was  the  establishment  of  communica- 
tion with  the  opposite  bank,  to  avoid  a  long  detour  of  about 
ten  miles  in  order  to  cross  the  river.  First,  in  order  to 
bring  the  camps  perched  on  each  cliff  closer  together,  a 
telephone  wire  was  thrown  across  the  ravine.  This  frail 
connection  was  completed  in  an  ingenious  manner.  A 
thin  string  was  tied  to  the  stick  of  a  rocket  which  was  fired 
across  the  gorge.  The  opposite  party  secured  the  stick 
and  end  of  the  stout  twine,  and  by  its  means  hauled  across 
a  thicker  length  of  string,  which  in  turn  was  followed  by 
one  still  stouter,  with  which  the  telephone  wire  was  hauled 
across.  In  this  way  the  opposite  camps  were  brought  as 
closely  into  touch  with  one  another  as  if  they  were  side  by 
side  on  the  same  bank.  Previously,  attempts  had  been 
made  to  fly  a  string  across  by  means  of  a  kite,  but  the 
upward  rush  of  eddying  air  from  the  vortex  of  the  water 
caused  the  kite  to  become  the  sport  of  the  wind  and  to  play 
sorry  pranks,  without  gaining  the  opposite  bank.  The 


H4    RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

complete  success  of  the  rocket  caused  a  similar  cycle  of 
operations  to  be  repeated,  only  in  this  case,  instead  of  haul- 
ing a  telephone  wire  across  the  gorge,  a  marked  wire  was 
handled,  the  idea  being  to  measure  accurately  the  width 
of  the  gap,  a  spring  balance  being  introduced  at  one  end 
to  compute  the  extent  of  the  "sag"  of  the  wire  for  the 
purposes  of  calculations. 

The  result  of  these  investigations  served  to  countercheck 
the  surveys,  which  were  found  to  be  strikingly  correct,  and 
the  design  of  the  bridge  was  taken  in  hand  immediately 
by  Mr.  G.  A.  Hobson. 

Actual  construction  was  commenced  without  delay,  the 
task  being  undertaken  by  the  Cleveland  Engineering  & 
Bridge  Building  Company  of  Darlington,  who,  by  the  suc- 
cessful completion  of  this  task,  once  more  emphasised  the 
predominance  of  the  British  bridge-building  engineer.  The 
main  span  is  a  graceful  curve  of  steel  springing  from  the 
cliff-face  on  either  side,  the  latter  being  excavated  for  the 
purpose  of  securing  the  foundations.  As  construction  was 
possible  only  on  the  cantilever  principle  from  either  side, 
facilities  had  to  be  provided  for  the  transportation  of 
material  as  it  was  brought  up  by  the  railway,  from  the 
south  to  the  opposite  cliff,  and  for  this  purpose  an  overhead 
cableway  was  slung  across  the  gorge.  This  vehicle  of 
transport  was  employed  not  only  for  the  building  of  the 
bridge,  but  also  for  the  conveyance  of  other  necessities  for 
the  railway,  as  the  latter  was  pushed  ahead  from  the  north 
bank  while  the  bridge  was  being  erected.  Workmen  were 
also  slung  across  the  gorge  by  this  means  in  a  little  cage, 
and  occasionally  visitors  who  were  anxious  to  experience 
a  new  sensation  made  the  trip  at  a  cost  of  ios.,  or  $2.50  per 
head. 

One  feature  of  the  undertaking  was  the  extreme  care 
taken  to  protect  the  workmen  from  certain  death  in  the 
river  below  if  they  slipped  from  their  precarious  perches 
in  mid-air.  A  heavy,  strong  net  was  slung  across  the 
chasm  beneath  the  actual  working  point  to  catch  "boys 
and  tools  should  they  inadvertently  drop."  The  two  ribs 


FROM  THE   CAPE   TO   CAIRO  145 


of  steel  were  pushed  outwards  from  either  bank,  and  finally 
met  in  the  centre,  where  the  final  bolts,  securing  first  the 
two  sections  of  the  bottom  members  together,  were  slipped 
in  without  any  untoward  incident.  At  the  point  where  the 
maze  of  steel  springs  from  the  cliff-face  the  bridge  measures 
105  feet  from  the  bottom  to  the  top  member,  while  at  the 
crown  of  the  arch  the  depth  is  15  feet.  The  width  at  the 
rail-level  is  30  feet,  while  the  bottom  curved  steel  ribs,  at 
the  point  where  they  are  secured  to  the  rock,  are  about  54 
feet  apart. 

Notwithstanding  the  difficulties,  attending  the  erection 
of  such  a  massive  bridge  upon  such  a  site,  construction  was 
carried  out  so  rapidly  that  the  first  train  was  enabled  to 
cross  the  structure  within  about  eighteen  months  of  work 
being  commenced.  The  celerity  with  which  this  task  was 
completed  was  striking,  bearing  in  mind  that  native  labour 
was  employed  for  the  most  part,  under  the  supervision  of 
English  foremen  and  engineers. 

At  the  time  it  was  built  it  ranked  as  the  loftiest  bridge 
in  the  world,  but  it  has  been  deposed  since  from  that 
premier  position  by  the  wonderful  Fades  viaduct  which 
spans  the  Sioule  River  in  the  French  province  of  Puy  de 
D6me,  where  the  train  crosses  the  water  at  a  height  of 
434^  feet. 

By  the  time  the  Victoria  bridge  was  able  to  permit  trains 
to  pass  from  bank  to  bank,  the  end  of  steel  had  been 
hurried  towards  Kalomo,  the  capital  of  North- Western 
Rhodesia,  1,733  miles  from  Cape  Town.  On  this  section 
another  remarkable  record  was  established.  The  engineer, 
Sir  Charles  Metcalfe,  Bart.,  was  in  the  field  on  one  of  his 
periodical  visits,  and  was  accompanied  by  an  interested 
French  engineer,  who  had  built  railways  in  French  West 
Africa.  The  latter  was  greatly  interested  in  the  progress 
of  the  Cape  to  Cairo  line,  but  observing  the  methods  of  the 
native  workmen,  ventured  to  ask  how  many  miles  of  track 
could  be  laid  per  day. 

"Well,  what  do  you  think  we  can  lay?"  asked  Sir 
Charles  Metcalfe. 


146    RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

"Oh,  I  don't  think  you  can  lay  more  than  half-a-mile. 
That  seems  to  me  a  fair  estimate,"  remarked  the  French 
railway-builder. 

The  English  engineer  had  a  brief  conversation  with  his 
lieutenant  in  charge  of  the  rail-laying  operations,  and  the 
latter  in  a  few  brief  words  galvanised  the  whole  of  the  crew 
into  electric  movement.  In  twenty  minutes  the  track  had 
advanced  a  quarter  of  a  mile  before  the  astonished  French 
engineer's  eyes.  He  scarcely  could  credit  what  he  had 
seen,  and  left  the  spot  with  a  high  regard  for  the  English 
engineer's  organisation  and  methods  of  handling  the 
natives  to  be  able  to  wrest  such  a  spurt  at  a  moment's 
notice. 

This  incident  impressed  Sir  Charles  Metcalfe,  and,  after 
a  chat  with  the  English  overseers,  foremen  and  engineers 
surveying  the  placing  of  the  33-feet  lengths  of  steel 
upon  the  ground,  it  was  decided  to  make  an  experi- 
ment just  to  see  what  could  be  accomplished  under  an 
emergency  with  native  labour.  The  black  men  were  mar- 
shalled up  for  a  full  day's  work,  and  were  urged  to  let 
themselves  go,  the  desire  of  establishing  a  record  being 
communicated  to  the  more  enterprising  spirits.  The 
natives  love  a  contest,  and  they  girdled  into  the  work  with 
astonishing  zest.  They  did  not  seem  to  tire,  and  they 
spurned  the  heat.  The  result  was  that  when  the  ten  hours' 
labour  was  completed  for  the  day  the  steel  had  crept  forward 
no  less  that  5f  miles — a  world's  record.  Yet  everything 
proceeded  so  smoothly  that  it  appeared,  from  the  stranger's 
point  of  view,  as  if  work  were  being  carried  out  at  the 
normal  rate  of  a  mile  a  day. 

This  result,  with  native  labour,  was  remarkable.  The 
engineers  in  charge  of  the  wonderful  track-layer  used  in 
America  point  to  the  speed  with  which  the  metals  can  be 
laid  with  its  aid.  Yet  it  comes  somewhat  as  a  shock  to 
their  pride  to  learn  that  their  best  performances  of  3  to  4^ 
miles  a  day  can  be  exceeded  by  unskilled  black  men,  with 
no  tools  whatever. 

From  Kalomo  the  engineers  pushed  north-eastwards  to 


FROM   THE   CAPE  TO   CAIRO  147 

Broken  Hill,  280  miles  beyond.  In  this  stretch,  however, 
another  obstacle  had  to  be  overcome.  This  was  the  Kafue 
River,  which  is  the  most  important  tributary  to  the  Zambesi 
River,  and  indeed  forms  one  leg  of  this  great  waterway. 
The  great  width  of  the  Kafue  River,  1,300  feet,  called  for  a 
lengthy  bridge.  Although  the  waters  are  shallow  during 
the  dry  season,  the  average  depth  being  9  feet,  in  the  wet 
season,  however,  the  river  rises  to  17  feet  or  so.  It  is  a 
comparatively  sluggish  waterway,  the  speed  of  the  current 
being  about  3  miles  an  hour. 

Mr.  G.  A.  Hobson  was  responsible  for  the  design  of  this 
bridge  also,  and  he  decided  that  a  light  structure,  divided 
into  13  spans  each  of  100  feet,  would  meet  the  case. 
The  actual  construction  was  carried  out  by  Mr.  A.  L. 
Lawley  as  supervising  engineer  on  behalf  of  the  railway- 
builders.  The  bridge  is  of  the  lattice  girder  type,  the  trains 
running  through  the  bridge.  The  whole  of  the  steel-work 
was  prepared  in  England,  shipped  to  Cape  Town,  and  then 
transported  2000  miles  up  country  by  railway  to  a  yard 
improvised  on  the  river  bank,  where  the  ribs  of  steel  were 
assembled  to  form  the  spans.  In  addition,  a  pontoon,  like- 
wise of  steel,  was  sent  up  in  pieces  in  a  similar  manner, 
assembled  on  the  bank  and  launched.  This  pontoon  was 
utilised  to  float  the  spans  into  position,  and  also  to  convey 
material  across  the  river  to  enable  the  grade  to  be  pushed 
ahead  while  the  waterway  was  being  spanned.  The 
pontoon  was  pulled  from  bank  to  bank  by  means  of  an 
endless  wire  cable,  driven  by  a  steam  engine. 

The  spans  are  supported  on  masonry  piers,  each  18  feet 
wide  by  8  feet  thick.  Mr.  Lawley  found  the  river-bed  to 
be  composed  of  rock  and  gravel,  which  gave  a  first-class 
foundation,  and  favoured  the  expeditious  erection  of  the 
piers.  Consequently  he  concluded,  if  the  piers  were  pushed 
forward  at  low  water,  that  it  would  be  possible  to  set  the 
steel-work  directly  the  river  once  more  gained  flood-level, 
and  arrangements  to  this  end  were  carried  out.  Timber 
coffer-dams  were  built  around  the  sites  for  the  piers,  and 
by  the  aid  of  pumps  the  interior  was  kept  clear  of  water  to 

L  2 


148    RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

permit  the  workmen   to  achieve   their  stone-setting   task 
within  under  the  most  favourable  conditions. 

While  the  piers  were  progressing  other  gangs  of  natives 
were  hard  at  work  in  the  improvised  shipyard  riveting  the 
steel-work  together.  Each  span  measured  100  feet  long, 
14  feet  in  width,  20  feet  in  height,  and  weighed  56  tons. 
The  pontoon  itself  measured  95  feet  long  by  45  feet  wide. 

Work  continued  so  favourably  that  by  the  time  the 
masonry  work  on  the  piers  was  completed  the  spans  had 
been  assembled,  and  all  was  ready  for  transhipping  them 
from  the  yard  to  their  respective  positions  on  the  piers. 
Novel  means  for  transporting  the  weighty  and  bulky  masses 
of  steel  were  adopted.  The  pontoon  was  brought  endwise 
against  the  river  bank  and  made  fast.  A  length  of  railway 
track  was  laid  from  end  to  end  along  the  deck  of  the 
pontoon,  and  was  brought  against  the  ends  of  another  short 
track  running  down  the  river  bank,  thereby  making  a  con- 
tinuous length  of  railway  line.  As  the  completed  spans 
were  ranged  side  by  side  in  the  yard  at  right  angles  to  the 
river,  they  had  to  be  hauled  sideways  for  some  distance. 
Rails  were  laid  under  each  end  of  the  spans  at  right  angles 
to  the  railway  and  were  well  greased  so  as  to  become  a  kind 
of  "ways  "  such  as  are  used  to  launch  a  vessel.  Gangs  of 
natives  tugged  at  the  span  to  haul  it  broadside  until  it 
rested  on  the  railway  line,  which  also  was  lubricated.  Then 
two  locomotives  were  brought  up  to  the  rear  end  of  the 
span,  and  by  sheer  steam  force  pushed  it  down  the  bank 
railway  on  to  the  pontoon,  where  it  rested  fairly  and 
squarely,  and  overhanging  equally  each  end  of  the  pontoon, 
which  was  five  feet  shorter  than  the  span. 

The  pontoon  was  then  released  from  its  moorings  and 
was  hauled  out  into  the  stream  by  means  of  the  endless 
cable,  until  it  came  centrally  between  the  two  piers  on 
which  the  span  was  to  be  placed.  From  each  pier  a  hawser 
was  passed  to  stanchions  on  either  end  of  the  pontoon. 
The  endless  cable  was  slackened,  and  the  pontoon,  with  its 
novel  cargo,  was  permitted  to  drift  slowly  down-stream 
towards  the  space  between  the  two  piers,  being  guided  in 


FROM  THE   CAPE   TO   CAIRO  149 

its  course  by  manipulation  of  one  or  the  other  of  the  two 
hawsers.  In  this  manner  the  craft  was  steered  delicately 
into  position  and  was  made  fast.  The  actual  transference 
of  the  span  from  the  pontoon  to  the  mason>ry  bed  was 
carried  out  by  hydraulic  jacks,  which  lifted  the  whole  mass 
of  steel.  When  the  jacks  were  released,  the  ends  of  the 
span  rested  firmly  on  the  two  piers.  By  hauling  on  to  the 
endless  cable  the  pontoon  now  was  drawn  clear  of  the 
bridge  to  return  for  another  load. 

This  novel  method  proved  so  completely  successful  that 
the  13  spans  were  transferred  from  the  bank  and  set 
in  position  within  the  short  space  of  8  days  ! — half  the 
time  the  engineer  had  computed  as  being  requisite  for  the 
operation.  The  whole  undertaking  was  accomplished  in 
record  time,  bearing  in  mind  the  peculiar  conditions  pre- 
vailing in  the  heart  of  Africa,  and  the  use  of  native  labour  ; 
for,  from  the  time  the  first  move  towards  the  erection  of 
the  piers  was  made,  to  the  setting  of  the  last  span,  only 
five  months  elapsed.  The  total  cost  of  this  mass  of  steel, 
weighing  728  tons  and  stretching  in  an  unbroken  line  for 
1,300  feet  across  the  river,  was  ,£50,000,  or  $250,000. 

When  Broken  Hill  was  gained,  2,013  miles  from  Cape 
Town,  construction  was  brought  to  a  stop.  The  master- 
mind had  passed  away  some  time  before,  and  the  colleague 
who  had  assisted  Rhodes  when  other  financial  magnates 
turned  a  deaf  ear  to  the  project,  had  also  joined  the  great 
majority.  By  the  time  Broken  Hill  was  gained,  ^"8,000,000 
(or  $40,000,000)  had  been  sunk  in  the  enterprise.  For 
months  the  stack  of  2000  tons  of  steel  for  the  resumption 
northwards  remained  untouched,  through  lack  of  funds, 
though  Mr.  Alfred  Beit  had  left  ;£  1,500,000  (or  $7,500,000) 
towards  the  continuation  of  the  work.  Then  the  mineral 
wealth  around  Katanga  in  the  Congo  Free  State,  which 
was  under  exploitation,  demanded  transportation  to  the 
coast.  Accordingly,  the  line  was  pushed  on  to  the  border 
of  the  adjacent  country.  Rhodes'  objective  was  Kituta,  at 
the  southern  end  of  Lake  Tanganyika,  450  miles  north  of 
Broken  Hill,  which  point  marks  the  limit  of  British  sway 


i5o    RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

in  South  Africa,  a  distance  of  about  2,700  miles  by  rail 
from  Cape  Town. 

When  Rhodes'  vision  presented  the  railway  stretching 
in  an  unbroken  thread  from  north  to  south,  the  knowledge 
of  the  country  lying  between  the  Zambesi  and  the  Nile 
was  somewhat  scanty.  As  the  scheme  progressed  it  became 
known  that  Lake  Tanganyika  was  hemmed  in  by  pre- 
cipitous mountains,  where  railway-building  would  soar  to 
an  enormous  figure  per  mile.  On  the  other  hand,  the  lake 
is  a  splendid  sheet  of  water,  offering  excellent  navigation 
throughout  its  length  of  400  miles.  Therefore,  there  should 
be  no  reason  why  the  example  of  the  Russian  Government, 
in  regard  to  the  use  of  ferry  steamers  on  Lake  Baikal, 
should  not  be  emulated  to  transport  trains  intact  from 
Kituta  at  the  southern,  to  Usamburu  at  the  northern,  end 
of  Lake  Tanganyika. 

Ninety  miles  north  of  Usamburu  is  Lake  Kivu,  and  the 
dividing  neck  of  land  offers  no  great  difficulties  to  construc- 
tion beyond  a  gradual  rise  of  2000  feet.  Reaching  Lake 
Kivu,  which  is  also  surrounded  by  lofty  ridges,  the  rail- 
way would  once  more  take  to  the  water  for  some  60  miles. 
Continuing  northwards,  there  is  another  stretch  of  rising 
country  to  be  crossed,  where  the  track  would  be  lifted  to  its 
greatest  height,  or  summit  level,  between  Cape  Town  and 
Cairo,  to  gain  the  head  of  Lake  Edward,  which  is  75  miles 
in  length.  Owing  to  the  flat  character  of  the  country 
around  this  sheet  of  water  lending  itself  to  cheap  railway 
construction,  probably  it  would  be  found  preferable  to  keep 
to  the  land,  especially  as  the  country  is  healthy,  thickly 
populated,  and  offers  great  promise  of  becoming  wealthy 
under  commercial  development. 

But  the  line,after  leaving  Lake  Kivu,  has  to  pass  through 
Belgian  territory,  and  as  this  location  is  inevitable  unless 
it  were  decided  to  swing  somewhat  to  the  east  to  pass 
through  German  East  Africa,  an  easier  route  has  been 
offered  through  the  Congo.  The  railway  has  been  taken 
from  Broken  Hill  to  Elizabethville.  The  Belgian  authori- 
ties are  anxious  that  it  should  be  extended  from  that  point 


FROM  THE   CAPE   TO   CAIRO  151 

to  Bukana  on  the  Congo  River.  Boats  could  be  used 
between  this  point  and  Congolo,  where  communication  by 
rail  would  extend  to  Kindu,  to  be  followed  by  another 
stretch  of  river  as  far  as  Ponthierville.  The  existing  rail- 
way to  Stanleyville  would  then  be  pressed  into  service,  and 
from  the  last-named  point  the  line  would  debouch  to  the 
north-east  to  gain  the  Albert  Nyanza,  and  there  link  up 
with  the  railway  that  has  been  driven  southwards  from 
Cairo. 


CHAPTER   XII 

CECIL  RHODES'  DREAM— FROM  THE  CAPE  TO  CAIRO 
II. — Southwards  from  Cairo. 

WHILE  the  southern  arm  of  the  great  line  has  been 
pushed  on  energetically  northwards  from  Cape  Town,  the 
northern  limb  has  descended  almost  as  rapidly  down  the 
Valley  of  the  Nile  to  the  great  interior,  so  that  the  heart 
of  the  continent  is  being  eaten  into  spiritedly  from  both 
ends.  The  two  branches  have  been  built  under  totally 
different  auspices.  Whereas  the  southern  section  was 
carried  out  by  private  enterprise,  the  northern  division  is 
the  work  of  Government  effort. 

In  the  north  the  railway  has  made  history  rapidly,  and 
its  conquest  has  been  of  a  complex  character.  It  placed 
a  unique  weapon  in  the  hands  of  the  Government,  and 
it  wrested  a  vast  track  of  Africa,  aggregating  950,000 
square  miles,  from  barbarity  and  religious  fanaticism  in 
the  form  of  Mahdism. 

Owing  to  the  impoverished  condition  of  the  country,  the 
railway  in  Egypt  has  experienced  a  very  chequered  career. 
It  commenced  its  pacific  invasion  promisingly  enough, 
but  it  was  found  to  be  a  highly  expensive  settling  influence 
for  a  land  whose  coffers  had  been  depleted  almost  to  the 
extent  of  emptiness. 

The  early  lines,  when  laid,  were  neglected,  and  con- 
sequently fell  into  a  sorry  condition.  The  majority  of 
people  who  had  regard  for  their  lives  and  limbs  preferred 
other  vehicles  of  transport.  Everything  in  connection 
with  the  iron  road  was  conducted  in  a  haphazard  manner. 
Trains  started  without  any  one  having  the  faintest  idea 
as  to  where  they  were  going  or  what  time  they  would 
reach  some  destination.  Lord  Cromer  relates  that  when 

152 


FROM   THE   CAPE   TO   CAIRO  153 

he  first  went  to  the  Land  of  the  Pharaohs  all  the  lines 
were  single  track.  No  staff  or  block  system  of  any  kind 
was  in  vogue,  and  there  were  no  signals.  A  train  started 
from  a  station  on  the  off-chance  that  another  train  was 
not  coming  in  the  opposite  direction.  Needless  to  say, 
as  he  tersely  remarks,  "he  avoided  those  lines." 

In  the  Sudan  matters  were  even  worse.  The  Khedive 
embarked  upon  a  laudable  enterprise  when  he  decided  to 
carry  the  iron  highway  southwards  from  Wadi  Haifa. 
Khartoum  was  the  objective,  but  nearly  half  a  century 
passed  before  the  iron  horse  appeared  at  the  latter  point, 
for  when  the  Khedive's  railway  got  so  far  as  Sarras, 
33  miles  south,  funds  became  exhausted  and  the  scheme 
was  abandoned.  Another  attempt  was  made  in  1885-6,  on 
the  occasion  of  the  Nile  Expedition,  to  resuscitate  the 
scheme,  and  by  great  effort  another  53  miles  were  tacked 
on  from  Sarras  to  Akasha.  The  life  of  the  second  section 
was  short,  for  when  the  British  forces  retired  the  track  was 
pulled  up  by  the  dervishes,  and  Sarras  reverted  to  its 
position  as  the  southern  terminus. 

When  Lord  Kitchener  was  deputed  to  crush  the  Mahdi 
for  once  and  for  all,  he  found  1,200  miles  of  sandy  desert 
between  him  in  the  north  and  the  seat  of  the  fanatic's  power. 
The  river  was  available  for  the  movement  of  troops  as  in  the 
previous  campaign,  but  the  latter  had  emphasised  the  dis- 
advantages of  that  highway  through  hostile  territory.  He 
foresaw  that  only  one  agency  would  enable  him  to  accom- 
plish the  desired  end,  and  that  was  the  railway.  Among 
his  officers  was  a  Canadian  engineer,  Sir  Percy  Girouard, 
and  he  discussed  the  possibility  of  building  a  line  across 
the  desert  to  span  that  inhospitable  gap  in  order  to  pour 
his  troops  against  the  Mahdi  forces.  The  engineer  realised 
the  situation  and  undertook  to  carry  the  line  southwards 
from  Wadi  Haifa. 

The  task  was  commenced  in  1896,  and  railway  con- 
struction was  pushed  forward  with  such  spirited  energy 
that  Kerma,  at  the  head  of  the  cataracts,  was  gained  in 
a  short  time.  No  great  engineering  difficulties  were  offered 


154    RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

because  the  desert  is  tolerably  level,  and  the  sand  provided 
a  good  foundation  for  the  steel  sleepers,  or  ties,  with  the 
minimum  of  ballasting.  The  greater  question  was  to  main- 
tain the  steady  supply  of  requisite  material  southwards 
from  Alexandria.  Yet  an  average  speed  of  two  miles  per 
day  was  maintained,  the  rails  being  laid  for  the  most 
part  by  natives,  assisted  by  both  British  and  Egyptians, 
under  the  military  engineers. 

The  objective  was  Abu  Hamed,  where  the  Nile  describes 
a  big  elbow,  and  at  that  time  this  point  was  in  the  hands 
of    the    enemy.      Its   capture,    however,    by    the    Anglo- 
Egyptian  troops  resulted  in  a  speeding-up  in  constructional 
work   on    the   advancing    railway,    and   the    80   miles    of 
line  into  this  town  were  laid  in  about  two  months.    Cling- 
ing to  the  east  bank  of  the  river,  it  was  driven  southwards 
to  Atbara,  where  a  halt  was  called,  and  where  the  head- 
quarters were  established  for  the  Omdurman  campaign. 
Curiously  enough,  although  the  railway  has  reached  the 
capital  of  the  Sudan,  Atbara  has  not  yet  lost  its  importance 
from  the  railway  point  of  view,  being  the  administration 
centre  for  the  whole  Sudan  Government  railway  system. 
At  this  place  the  Nile  is  swelled  by  the  waters  of  the 
Atbara  River,  which  flow7s  in  from  the  east.     While  the 
campaign   was   in    progress   communication   between    the 
opposite  banks  was   maintained  by  means  of  a  wooden 
bridge.     As  the  river,   however,   is  tempestuous  when  in 
flood,  during  which  period  it  rises  to  a  high  level,  a  more 
permanent   structure   was   demanded   for   the   iron   horse. 
The  width  of  the  waterway  called  for  the  erection  of  over 
1000  feet  of  steel  bridging.     When  the  advance  of  the 
railhead  was  determined,  it  was  decided  to  rush  the  railway 
across  the  river  before  it  once  more  rose  in  flood.    Tenders 
were  invited,  only  to  be  received  with  dismay,  because  it 
was   found   that   the   structure   required   was   of   such   an 
elaborate  character  that  no  English  firm  would  undertake 
to  complete  it  within  two  years. 

This   upset   official   calculations   severely,    and   accord- 
ingly  fresh  tenders   for  a   simpler   type   of  bridge   were 


CONSTRUCTION    TRAIN    ON. THE   WAY    TO    fHE    RAILHEAD 
CROSSING   A   TEMPORARY   TIMBER   BRIDGE 


>*• 


W-  v& 

Photos  by  courtesy  of  A.  L.  Lawley,  Esq.} 

THE    LONGEST    BRIDGE    IN   AFRICA,   1,300   FEET    IN    LENGTH, 
ACROSS    THE    KAFUE      RIVER 


[See  page  1 64 

THE    CHANGING    BRIDGE,"    ONE    OF    THE    RAILWAY 

ENGINEERING    WONDERS   OF    THE    DENVER   AND    RIO   GRANDE,    IN    THE 
ROYAL   GORGE    OF    COLORADO 


FROM  THE   CAPE  TO   CAIRO  155 

called.  The  task  was  thrown  open  to  the  world,  and 
celerity  of  construction  was  the  primordial  condition. 
The  British  firms  re-tendered,  but  to  their  disgust  they 
were  beaten  hopelessly  both  in  regard  to  the  cost  of  the 
structure  and  the  time  in  which  it  could  be  erected  by  the 
American  engineers.  The  result  was  that  the  contract 
went  to  a  Philadelphia  firm.  Five  weeks  after  the  receipt 
of  the  order  the  steel-work  left  New  York,  and  within  a 
further  few  weeks  communication  across  the  river  was 
provided  by  7  spans  of  steel,  each  147  feet  long,  resting 
on  cast-iron  cylinders. 

The  most  remarkable  feature  about  this  contract  was 
the  public  outcry  that  ensued.  British  methods  were  held 
up  in  comparison  with  American  hustle,  much  to  the 
disparity  of  the  former.  British  builders  were  assailed  as 
lethargic,  wedded  to  obsolete  methods,  and  consequently 
had  suffered  the  penalty  of  such  conservatism  by  being 
beaten  in  a  most  hollow  manner.  The  same  critics,  how- 
ever, failed  to  shriek  so  loudly  in  acclamation  a  year  later 
in  appreciation  of  a  British  firm  which  accomplished  a 
feat  which  even  startled  the  Americans.  This  was  in 
connection  with  a  bridge  of  five  spans,  each  105  feet  long, 
which  was  turned  out  of  a  Midland  shop  to  replace  the 
structure  which  had  been  destroyed  by  the  Boers  across 
the  Tugela  River  in  Natal.  Both  British  and  American 
engineers  were  invited  to  tender,  and  the  American  firms, 
despite  their  wonderful  organisation,  hustling  methods,  and 
their  remarkable  facilities  for  accomplishing  quick  work, 
were  dismayed  to  find  that  they  had  been  beaten  by  their 
British  rivals  as  hollow  as  the  latter  had  been  vanquished 
some  months  before.  The  successful  firm  rolled  100  tons 
of  steel,  had  it  inspected,  tested  and  passed  by  the  Natal 
Government  engineer  in  eight  hours.  It  had  undertaken 
to  deliver  the  first  span  within  six  weeks  of  the  receipt 
of  the  order — as  a  matter  of  fact,  it  was  completed  within 
nineteen  days.  The  Americans  themselves  admitted  that 
the  British  performance  was  wonderful,  and  that  complete 
revenge  had  been  taken  for  the  Atbara  contract. 


156    RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

As  the  railway  pushed  its  way  towards  Khartoum,  the 
ranks  of  the  labourers  were  swelled  by  large  numbers  of 
dervishes,  who  had  grown  disheartened  at  the  result  of 
their  resistance  to  the  British  advance  on  the  northern 
borders  of  the  Mahdi's  stronghold,  had  realised  the  im- 
potency  of  their  efforts,  and  consequently  had  decided 
to  throw  in  their  lot  on  the  railway.  The  increased  labour 
enabled  the  work  to  be  prosecuted  even  more  energetic- 
ally, though  a  certain  amount  of  time  was  lost  in  drilling 
this  raw  material  into  the  mysteries  of  wielding  the  white 
man's  tools. 

When  the  dervishes  first  saw  the  locomotive  they  mar- 
velled. Steam  was  beyond  their  comprehension.  They 
believed  stoutly  that  the  engine's  boiler  was  packed  with 
animals,  and  when  the  driver  blew  his  whistle  many  fled 
in  complete  terror.  To  them  the  agonising  shriek  of  the 
animal  on  wheels  was  more  terrifying  than  the  hail  of  lead 
from  a  Maxim  gun.  Indeed,  it  is  reported  that  one  chief, 
when  he  saw  a  locomotive  puffing  along  slowly  and 
laboriously  with  its  load  of  cars,  went  so  far  as  to  assail 
the  British  officers  for  their  callous  cruelty  in  making  so 
small  a  beast  pull  such  a  heavy,  long  load  ! 

The  Atbara  bridge,  after  fulfilling  all  requirements  for 
eleven  years,  had  to  be  reconstructed.  It  was  not  found 
strong  enough  to  withstand  the  heavy  loads  of  to-day,  for 
on  the  Sudan  railway  weights,  lengths  and  speeds  of  trains 
have  increased  strikingly  during  a  decade.  When  over- 
haul became  imperative,  an  English  firm  secured  the  com- 
mission to  rebuild  the  American  structure,  and  to-day  there 
is  nothing  left  of  the  bridge  which  provoked  such  acrimon- 
ious discussion  at  the  time  of  its  erection.  Owing  to  the 
elaborate  nature  of  the  building  operations  a  temporary 
bridge  had  to  be  thrown  across  the  river  to  carry  the  railway 
traffic. 

When  Khartoum  was  gained  another  pause  was  unavoid- 
able owing  to  the  necessity  to  cross  the  Blue  Nile  in  order 
to  continue  southwards  to  Sennar.  This  arm  of  the  great 
Egyptian  river  is  fickle,  for  in  times  of  flood  it  rushes 


FROM   THE   CAPE   TO    CAIRO  157 

along  at  some  u  miles  an  hour.  The  contract  for 
carrying  the  railway  to  the  opposite  bank  was  secured 
by  the  firm  entrusted  with  the  overhauling  of  the  Atbara 
bridge,  and  it  is  a  noble  work  of  its  class.  The  river 
being  navigable,  facilities  had  to  be  provided  to  permit 
vessels  to  pass  up  and  down.  This  end  was  met  by  intro- 
ducing an  electrically  operated  rolling  lift  span  working 
like  a  drawbridge.  To  enable  railway  construction  to 
be  carried  on  while  the  river  was  being  negotiated  a 
temporary  timber  bridge  was  thrown  across  the  waterway. 
While  this  was  in  progress  the  power  of  the  waters  rushing 
through  this  tributary  when  in  flood  was  emphasised  in 
no  uncertain  manner.  A  considerable  quantity  of  scaffold- 
ing intended  for  the  support  of  the  steel  bridge  during 
erection  was  torn  up  and  hurried  down-stream. 

When  Sennar  was  gained,  a  deviation  directly  eastward 
was  made  in  order  to  gain  El  Obeid,  which  is  the  centre 
of  the  gum  trade,  one  of  the  most  prosperous  and  expand- 
ing industries  of  the  Upper  Sudan.  Owing  to  its  more 
convenient  situation  on  the  main  river,  Omdurman  always 
has  been  the  market  for  this  article,  the  supplies  being 
conveyed  across  country  by  camel  caravan.  It  is  generally 
considered  that  now  El  Obeid  has  been  gained  by  the 
railway,  that  the  decadence  of  Omdurman  is  certain,  but 
though  this  may  be  inevitable  up  to  a  point,  the  town  is 
always  bound  to  command  a  certain  position  of  importance 
inasmuch  as  it  is  the  centre  of  a  considerable  pilgrim 
traffic. 

On  the  advance  to  El  Obeid  the  bridging  of  the  Whitt. 
Nile  had  to  be  carried  out,  and  here  again  British  engineer- 
ing triumphed,  for  the  contract  was  awarded  to  the  builders 
of  the  Khartoum  bridge.  This  firm,  with  these  two  Nile 
bridges  and  the  Victoria  Bridge  across  the  Zambesi,  may 
be  said  to  have  imprinted  their  name  indelibly  in  Africa 
in  connection  with  bridge-engineering.  The  point  of  cross- 
ing is  Goz  Abu  Guma,  and  owing  to  the  erratic  character 
of  the  White  Nile  its  design  occupied  considerable  delibera- 
tion. This  river  is  sluggish  both  in  time  of  flood  and  in 


158    RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

the  dry  season.  Indeed,  it  might  be  described  as  a  huge 
ditch.  When  low  the  water  occupies  a  channel  about 
1,500  feet  in  width,  but  in  the  wet  season  it  sprawls  across 
the  country  for  a  matter  of  three  miles  or  so. 

It  was  decided,  however,  that  the  bridging  of  the  normal 
channel  would  suffice,  the  line  being  carried  over  the  part 
subject  to  periodical  inundation  upon  well-built  embank- 
ments. The  over-water  structure  comprises  9  steel  spans 
each  146  feet  in  length,  and  one  swing-bridge  span  245^ 
feet  in  length  to  permit  navigation  up-  and  down-river, 
because  the  Sudan  Development  &  Exploration  Company 
maintain  a  steamship  service  between  Khartoum  and  Gon- 
doroko,  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Nile,  1,081  miles 
from  Gordon's  city.  The  spans  are  6  feet  above  the  level 
of  High  Nile,  and  are  supported  on  masonry  piers  sunk  in 
steel  caissons,  or  cylinders,  under  the  agency  of  compressed 
air,  to  a  depth  ranging  between  30  to  50  feet  below  low 
water. 

Although  the  iron  link  has  stretched  beyond  Khartoum 
to  the  south,  Alexandria  and  Cairo  are  not  in  through 
railway  communication  with  the  capital  of  Sudan,  1,480 
miles  away.  The  Egyptian  railways  have  their  most 
southerly  outpost  at  Shellal,  just  below  Assuan,  which 
is  about  24  hours'  journey  from  the  Mediterranean  sea- 
board by  the  White  de  luxe  express.  The  terminal  of 
the  Sudan  system  is  at  Haifa,  just  south  of  the  border 
between  the  two  countries.  The  river  Nile  constitutes  the 
artery  of  communication  between  these  two  railway  points, 
the  steamer  occupying  about  40  hours.  This  break  in 
the  iron  chain  possesses  distinct  drawbacks,  the  most 
serious  of  which  is  transhipment  between  steamer  and 
railway.  The  expense  and  inconvenience  of  this  route, 
with  its  breaking  bulk,  reacted  severely  upon  the  Upper 
Sudan,  and  accordingly  the  latter  Government  decided  to 
secure  an  independent  outlet  to  the  coast.  There  was 
only  one  means  of  accomplishing  this  end,  and  that 
was  to  strike  eastwards  across  country  to  gain  the  Red 
Sea. 


FROM   THE    CAPE   TO   CAIRO  159 

This  was  not  a  simple  enterprise,  especially  under  con- 
ditions which  did  not  lend  themselves  to  the  expenditure 
of  a  large  sum  of  money.  An  easy  graded  line  was 
imperative,  and  the  surveyors  had  to  search  diligently  for 
such  a  route,  because  a  range  of  hills  breaks  away  from 
the  northern  edge  of  the  Abyssinian  plateau,  to  run  parallel 
with  the  coast-line  of  the  Red  Sea  to  the  Gulf  of  Suez. 
Investigations  along  the  coast  resulted  in  Suakin,  305  miles 
distant  from  Atbara,  being  selected  as  the  sea  terminus, 
and  the  surveyors  succeeded  in  securing  a  location  giving 
no  banks  heavier  than  one  per  cent.,  and  with  no  curves 
of  a  sharper  radius  than  1,155  feet. 

As  the  constructional  engineers  were  confronted  with 
some  heavy  work  shortly  after  leaving  Suakin,  in  order 
to  overcome  the  coast  range,  building  was  commenced 
from  both  ends  of  the  line  simultaneously.  This  procedure, 
however,  did  not  prove  entirely  satisfactory,  owing  to  the 
cost  and  delay  in  bringing  material  down  from  Alexandria 
to  Atbara,  so  when  the  engineers  at  the  Suakin  end  had 
subjugated  their  obstacle  and  the  material  could  be  landed 
easily  from  vessels  and  hurried  to  the  railhead,  operations 
were  suspended  from  Atbara.  The  remoteness  of  Suakin, 
however,  produced  individual  handicaps,  the  greatest  of 
which  was  in  regard  to  labour.  The  scattered  natives  were 
given  employment,  but  as  they  were  unfamiliar  with  the 
tools  and  methods  they  did  not  prove  successful,  and  large 
numbers  of  Egyptians  who  had  toiled  on  the  other  lines 
were  shipped  to  the  Red  Sea  terminus.  They  were  housed 
in  military  tents,  and  a  stranger  happening  suddenly  upon 
a  railway  camp  might  have  been  pardoned  for  labouring 
under  the  impression  that  he  had  alighted  upon  an  in- 
vading army  under  canvas,  because  the  tents  were  pitched 
in  such  regular  rows  as  to  indicate  military  occupation. 

The  mountains  occasioned  some  little  anxiety  owing  to 
the  damage  that  was  caused  by  wash-outs  due  to  the  heavy 
rain,  but  these  were  soon  mastered.  This  abundance  of 
water  later  on  gave  place  to  extreme  scarcity,  for  when  the 
constructional  forces  had  penetrated  the  heart  of  the  desert, 


160    RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

this  commodity  was  found  only  with  great  difficulty  and  by 
infinite  labour. 

Despite  these  drawbacks,  however,  the  305  miles  of  line 
were  laid  and  opened  for  traffic  within  the  short  space  of 
14  months,  which  testifies  to  the  high  standard  of  the 
constructional  organisation  and  the  energy  with  which 
the  undertaking  was  pushed  forward.  The  significance  of 
this  branch  from  the  Nile  to  the  sea  was  revealed  instantly, 
but  unfortunately  it  was  realised  that  the  terminal  point 
on  the  coast  left  much  to  be  desired.  Further  investigation 
revealed  a  better  site  for  a  harbour  50  miles  north  of 
Suakin,  and  this  point,  now  known  as  Port  Sudan,  is  the 
terminus  of  the  line,  the  harbour  being  equipped  with 
modern  facilities  for  handling  traffic  between  ship  and 
railway.  The  new  port  is  connected  by  rail  with  Suakin, 
however,  which  is  being  retained  as  an  outlet. 

The  railway  will  creep  gradually  southwards  along  the 
bank  of  the  White  Nile  in  all  probability,  but  in  the  mean- 
time the  river  will  constitute  the  artery  of  communication. 
The  waterway  abounds  with  sand-bars  and  other  obstruc- 
tions to  navigation  which  provide  very  little  depth  of  water 
in  some  places,  but  the  Sudan  Development  &  Explora- 
tion Company  have  met  this  situation  by  the  utilisation  of 
steamers  which  draw  extremely  little  water  and  are  able 
to  pass  through  the  shallows  in  perfect  safety.  The  Sudan 
Government  also  maintains  a  steamship  connection  between 
Khartoum  and  Gondoroko.  This  water  link  is  about 
1000  miles  in  length,  and  the  round  trip  occupies  about 
23  days.  A  few  years  ago  the  possibility  of  being  able 
to  proceed  so  far  up  the  river  under  steam  was  feared  to 
be  impracticable,  owing  to  the  dense  masses  of  floating 
tangled  masses  of  vegetation,  or  "sudd,"  which  blocked  the 
river.  But  this  has  been  broken  up  and  a  clear  fairway 
is  maintained.  As  a  result,  Uganda  now  has  an  outlet 
to  the  Mediterranean  which  can  be  developed  considerably 
as  the  northern  extremities  of  that  country  are  opened  up. 

Unfortunately,  beyond  Gondoroko  the  river  cannot  be 
used,  because  for  about  100  miles — from  Rejaf  to  Dufile — 


FROM  THE   CAPE  TO   CAIRO  161 

there  is  a  continuous  chain  of  rapids.  These  two  points 
therefore  will  be  connected  by  railway  probably.  When 
Dufile  is  gained  the  river  can  be  used  once  more  so  far 
as  Lake  Albert  Nyanza,  where  the  line  from  Cape  Town 
would  be  met,  although  there  is  a  belief  that  the  Sudan 
Government  intends  to  push  the  railway  to  a  far  more 
southern  point. 

It  will  be  seen  that  although  Rhodes'  great  scheme  was 
for  a  continuous  steel  road  from  north  to  south,  this  idea 
has  had  to  be  modified  in  order  to  meet  unexpected  con- 
ditions, which  at  the  time  of  the  railway's  inception  were 
not  apparent.  In  reality  one  will  travel  from  the  "Cape 
to  Cairo  "  over  a  combined  rail  and  water  route  longitudin- 
ally through  the  continent.  At  the  present  moment  one 
can  cover  the  whole  journey  by  rail  and  water,  except 
for  a  distance  of  about  600  miles,  and  this  gap  is  being 
closed  rapidly.  As  the  settlement  of  the  country  along 
the  line  of  communication  becomes  effected,  and  the  heavy 
drawbacks  incidental  to  transhipment  become  more  and 
more  emphasised,  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  the  water 
route  will  be  superseded  gradually  by  the  railway,  so  that 
in  time  the  original  idea  will  be  consummated,  and  trains 
will  pass  right  through  from  the  Cape  to  Cairo  over  a 
continuous  path  of  steel  some  6000  miles  in  length. 


CHAPTER    XIII 


GRIDIRONING   THE  ROCKY   MOUNTAINS 

IF  one  consults  a  map  of  the  North  American  continent, 
it  will  be  observed  that  the  rolling  plains,  stretching  west- 
wards from  the  shores  of  the  Great  Lakes,  are  fringed  on 
their  western  edge  by  a  massive,  tumbled  and  lofty  wall — 
the  Rocky  Mountains.  This  is  the  backbone  of  the  New 
World,  stretching  from  Mexico  in  the  south  to  far-away 
Alaska  in  the  north,  on  the  slopes  of  which  rise  the  mighty 
rivers  to  flow  east  and  west  to  swell  the  waters  of  the 
Atlantic  and  the  Pacific.  Their  successful  conquest  by  the 
iron  horse  on  its  way  from  coast  to  coast  contributes  some 
of  the  most  thrilling  incidents  to  railway  history. 

If  the  map  is  consulted  closely  it  will  be  seen  that  this 
range  assumes  its  most  broken  character  in  the  State  of 
Colorado.  Here  Nature  became  unduly  playful  in  her 
process  of  moulding,  and  left  her  handiwork  in  a  badly- 
finished  condition.  Beetling  peaks  crowned  with  eternal 
snow  are  separated  by  yawning  ravines — mere  cracks  in 
the  earth's  crust — where  the  walls  are  half-a-mile  or  more 
in  height,  and  through  which  rivers  foam  and  tear  along 
tumultuously.  Yet  the  dishevelled  mass  of  rock  is  inter- 
sected by  steel  threads  which  comprise  the  respective 
systems  of  the  famous  Denver  &  Rio  Grande,  and  the 
Chicago  &  North-Western)  railways,  the  latter  being  known 
popularly  as  the  "Moffatt"  road,  after  its  originator. 

To  grasp  some  idea  of  the  exceptionally  mountainous 
character  of  Colorado,  a  comparison  with  Switzerland  may 
not  be  amiss.  This  State  is  so  vast  that  the  playground 
of  Europe  might  be  stowed  within  its  borders  six  times 
over,  and  then  there  would  be  several  hundred  square 
miles  to  spare.  Among  the  Alps  the  number  of  peaks 

162 


GRIDIRONING  THE   ROCKY   MOUNTAINS     163 

which  jut  their  pinnacles  over  13,000  feet  towards  the  clouds 
may  be  counted  on  the  fingers  of  the  hands;  on  the  other 
hand,  in  Colorado  there  are  no  less  than  120  such  monarchs, 
35  of  which  rise  to  an  altitude  of  more  than  14,000  feet. 
In  other  words,  there  are  compressed  about  ten  times  as 
many  lofty  summits  in  the  193,925  square  miles  com- 
prising this  State  as  are  to  be  found  scattered  throughout 
the  whole  of  Europe. 

The  village  having  the  loftiest  situation  in  Europe  is 
Avers  Platz  in  Switzerland,  which  nestles  among  the 
Swiss  Alps  at  an  altitude  of  7,500  feet  above  the  sea,  while 
the  highest  inhabited  point  is  the  Hospice  of  St.  Bernard, 
at  8,200  feet.  Contrast  either  of  these  with  the  flourishing 
town  of  Leadville,  whose  15,000  inhabitants  move,  live 
and  have  their  being  at  an  elevation  of  10,200  feet  above 
the  ocean.  Yet  this  does  not  mark  the  uppermost  limit 
of  civilisation  among  these  rocky  fastnesses,  because  there 
are  several  prosperous  mining  camps  at  13,000  feet  or 
more. 

The  highest  artery  of  traffic  in  Europe  is  the  wonderful 
Stelvio  road  which  enables  the  Tyrol  to  be  crossed  at  an 
altitude  of  9,042  feet.  This  is  a  zigzagging  highway  for 
vehicular  and  pedestrian  traffic.  In  Colorado,  the  Denver 
&  Rio  Grande  railway  crosses  the  backbone  of  the  con- 
tinent through  three  passes,  each  over  10,000  feet  above 
the  sea,  while  at  Ibex  the  station  platform  is  at  an  altitude 
of  11,522  feet.  On  the  Moffatt  road,  in  order  to  overcome 
the  range,  the  metals  are  lifted  still  higher  at  the  Rollins 
Pass — -to  1 1, 600  feet,  or  nearly  2\  miles  above  the  Atlantic. 

Incalculable  mineral  wealth  lies  buried  in  the  hearts  of 
these  peaks,  and  it  was  the  discovery  of  this  rich  storehouse 
of  Nature  that  led  to  the  opening  up  of  the  country  by  the 
iron  road.  There  was  a  gold  rush  in  1859,  followed  by  a 
silver  strike,  and  Leadville  was  one  of  the  first  towns  to 
spring  into  existence  in  the  wild  scramble  for  sudden 
wealth.  Though  this  locality  nestles  in  the  range  some 
70  miles  distant,  the  pioneer  miners  braved  perils  and 
privations  untold  to  gain  this  hub,  and  the  town  sprang 

M  2 


1 64    RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

up  as  if  by  magic.  But  the  isolation  of  the  situation,  and 
the  lack  of  transportation  facilities  soon  became  manifest 
to  an  acute  degree.  Every  ounce  of  material  had  to  be 
carried  to  and  fro  from  the  outside  world  by  wagon,  mule- 
pack,  or  manual  effort,  involving  an  exhausting,  slow  and 
expensive  journey  through  deep  gulches  and  over  broken 
mountain  trails. 

The  cry  for  a  railway  was  raised,  but  it  was  difficult  to 
find  pockets  sufficiently  deep  or  capitalists  so  plucky  as  to 
finance  such  an  undertaking.  However,  constant  agita- 
tion maintained  for  years  bore  its  fruit.  A  small  company 
was  formed,  and  the  Pueblo  &  Arkansas  railway  was 
commenced.  The  promoters  shrank  somewhat  from  the 
project,  fearing  that  construction  would  run  into  such  a 
prohibitive  figure  as  to  bring  ruination  in  its  wake,  so  they 
resolved  to  spend  the  minimum  amount  of  money  on  the 
scheme.  To  this  end  they  decided  to  follow  the  easiest 
route  available,  and  suggested  the  course  of  the  Arkansas 
River  from  Pueblo  into  the  mountains,  and  then  at  a  con- 
venient point  to  strike  into  the  range  to  make  the  ascent 
to  Leadville.  Yet  those  half-hearted  financiers  had  vision- 
ary dreams,  and  were  spurred  on  by  a  certain  amount  of 
ambition.  They  did  not  intend  to  come  to  a  dead-end  at 
Leadville,  but  once  they  had  gained  the  higher  level,  to 
push  right  across  the  Continental  Divide  to  Salt  Lake 
City,  and  thence  to  the  Pacific  Coast.  Some  thirty  years 
passed  by,  however,  before  the  latter  part  of  the  project 
was  completed. 

Though  the  course  along  the  Arkansas  River  was  selected 
as  the  cheapest  and  easiest  route,  the  preliminary  surveys 
sufficed  to  demonstrate  that  even  that  location  would  offer 
difficulties  out  of  the  ordinary.  The  gj  miles  run  through 
the  Royal  Gorge,  one  of  the  natural  wonders  of  North 
America,  promised  a  heavy  struggle.  This  defile  at  places 
is  2,700  feet  deep,  and  the  walls  rise  up  so  perpendicularly 
as  to  defy  the  slightest  foothold  to  a  chamois,  let  alone  a 
railway.  The  bottom  of  the  gulch  was  found  to  be  occu- 
pied by  the  turbulent  waters  of  the  river,  which  in  times 


GRIDIRONING  THE   ROCKY   MOUNTAINS     165 

of  flood  lapped  the  base  of  the  mountain  wall  on  either 
side,  though  at  normal  level  a  narrow  shelf  was  exposed 
at  the  foot  of  one  cliff. 

The  engineer  responsible  for  the  building  of  the  line, 
Mr.  A.  A.  Robinson,  decided  to  seize  that  shelf.  It  could 
be  made  just  wide  enough  to  carry  the  line  and  no  more, 
while  it  could  be  raised  sufficiently  to  escape  the  ravages 
of  high  water.  The  river  was  kept  within  bounds  by  a 
wall  of  rough,  heavy  masonry  carried  to  a  point  well  above 
the  highest  watermark,  and  on  this  the  track  was  laid  upon 
a  bed  of  rock  ballast  hewn  from  the  mountain  slopes. 

However,  when  the  eastern  portal  of  the  ravine  was 
gained  a  serious  obstacle  loomed  up.  The  ledge  which 
the  engineer  had  pressed  into  service  up  to  this  point  dis- 
appeared abruptly  into  the  water,  and  did  not  reappear  for 
some  distance  beyond.  The  two  sides  of  the  canyon, 
towering  up  to  nearly  3000  feet,  come  closer  together, 
leaving  only  a  narrow  vent  barely  30  feet  wide.  As  a 
result  the  river  channel  is  constricted,  and  the  water 
thunders  over  the  boulders  through  the  wedge-shaped  defile 
with  the  velocity  of  a  cataract. 

The  engineer  was  brought  to  a  full-stop.  How  was  he 
to  span  that  gap  ?  The  character  of  the  torrent  absolutely 
prevented  any  possibility  of  sinking  piers  in  the  waterway 
to  carry  a  bridge  across  the  breach  in  the  ledge.  Nor  could 
a  path  be  carved  out  of  the  mountain-side  to  carry  the  line 
around  the  obstacle,  because  the  maximum  gradient  had 
been  attained  already  on  either  approach  to  the  gap. 

As  Mr.  Robinson  related,  the  first  solution  that  occurred 
to  his  mind  was  to  tunnel  the  shoulder,  and  thus  to  avoid 
the  difficulty  completely.  But  the  bogey  of  expense  stood 
in  his  way.  There  were  scarcely  sufficient  funds  available 
to  build  a  surface  line,  and,  under  these  circumstances, 
tunnelling  was  quite  out  of  the  question.  Moreover,  it 
would  have  required  considerable  time,  and  the  public 
was  clamouring  wildly  for  the  completion  of  the  line. 

He  haunted  the  gorge  for  days,  and  spent  much  mid- 
night oil  in  the  hope  of  discovering  some  simple,  quick 


1 66     RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

and  cheap  means  of  solving  the  problem.  But  the  quest 
seemed  hopeless.  Then  suddenly  it  occurred  to  him  that, 
as  he  could  not  hope  for  assistance  from  the  river-bed,  why 
not  force  the  walls  of  the  ravine  to  his  aid  ?  In  short,  why 
not  sling  a  bridge  from  the  cliff  faces  on  either  hand  ? 

Thereupon  he  evolved  a  plan  to  throw  heavy  iron  girders 
in  the  manner  of  rafters  across  the  gulch,  to  anchor  their 
ends  to  the  solid  rock,  and  then  to  suspend  the  bridge 
carrying  the  metals  from  this  structure  in  such  a  way  that 
one  side  abutted  against  the  wall.  The  more  he  pondered, 
the  more  convinced  he  became  of  its  practicability,  despite 
the  fact  that  it  was  something  entirely  new  to  railway 
engineering. 

Being  intimately  acquainted  with  the  late  Mr.  C.  Shaler 
Smith,  who  at  that  time  was  one  of  the  foremost  consulting 
bridge-engineers  in  the  country,  he  communicated  his  plans 
to  him.  The  consulting  engineer  was  interested,  and 
arranged  to  accompany  the  designer  to  the  site  to  judge 
the  feasibility  of  the  scheme  at  first  hand,  and  after  ac- 
quainting himself  with  the  prevailing  conditions.  As  a 
result  of  this  investigation,  Mr.  Smith  concurred  in  the 
method  of  spanning  the  gap,  and  there  and  then  the 
arrangements  for  carrying  out  the  work  were  commenced. 

It  was  realised  that  the  task  was  somewhat  delicate,  and 
Mr.  Robinson  accordingly  entrusted  the  preliminary  opera- 
tions to  Mr.  J.  O.  Osgood,  who  was  appointed  Division 
Engineer  on  this  section  of  the  railway.  Mr.  Osgood 
carried  out  the  whole  of  the  surveys  for  his  chief  personally 
to  facilitate  the  accurate  design  and  details  of  the  whole 
structure. 

The  surveyor  related  to  me  that  when  he  first  entered  the 
canyon  no  one  had  ever  traversed  the  gorge  at  that  point, 
except  on  the  ice,  for  the  simple  reason  that  it  was  im- 
passable. Nor  could  one  get  across  by  clambering  along 
the  rock  face  where  the  line  was  to  go,  as  it  was  too  steep. 
The  situation  was  first  reconnoitred  from  all  practicable 
points  of  vantage.  Then,  in  order  to  complete  the  essential 
preliminary  work,  he  caused  a  narrow  pathway — nothing 


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GRIDIRONING  THE   ROCKY   MOUNTAINS     167 

more  than  a  ledge,  from  12  to  18  inches  in/  width — to  be 
hewn  in  the  cliff  above  the  site,  from  which  he  made  his 
final  surveys. 

The  cutting  of  this  path  in  itself  was  a  tedious  task, 
and  gave  some  idea  of  the  labour  that  would  have  been 
involved  in  tunnelling  the  rock.  This  narrow  shelf,  how- 
ever, proved  of  inestimable  value  in  handling  the  heavy 
overhead  members  of  metal  and  setting  them  into  position. 
The  dimensions  and  weight  of  the  latter  had  to  be  kept  as 
low  as  possible  to  facilitate  handling  under  the  peculiarly 
cramped  conditions.  Actual  erection  was  exciting  and 
hazardous.,  The  men  had  to  be  lowered  by  ropes  and  had 
to  ply  their  tools  while  swinging  in  mid-air  or  when  cling- 
ing to  precarious  footholds.  However,  the  cumbrous  over- 
head pieces  were  successfully  set  in  position,  the  ends  were 
bolted  to  brackets  sunk  deeply  into  the  cliff  faces,  and  from 
these  girders  the  track  floor  was  suspended,  the  ends  resting 
on  the  solid  edges  of  the  rocky  ledge,  while  one  side  was 
bedded  against  the  wall. 

Such  is  the  story,  as  communicated  to  me  by  the  en- 
gineers, of  the  origin  and  erection  of  what  ranks  as  an 
unparalleled  novelty  in  engineering.  The  "  Hanging 
Bridge "  was  built  in  the  Royal  Gorge  nearly  30  years 
ago,  and  although  the  first  structure  has  been  replaced  by 
one  of  larger  and  heavier  dimensions  to  accommodate 
weightier  trains,  the  fundamental  principle  is  precisely  the 
same  as  conceived  by  Mr.  Robinson. 

Yet  the  "Hanging  Bridge  "  is  but  one  of  many  engineer- 
ing wonders  to  be  found  on  this  railway.  Go  where  one 
will  over  its  1,800  miles  of  track  among  the  Rockies,  and 
some  striking  and  daring  work  confronts  one  at  every  turn. 
Here  the  railway  threads  its  way  through  a  winding  abyss, 
there  it  passes  over  the  crown  of  a  towering  peak,  or  toils 
laboriously  up  the  side  of  a  sheering  cliff.  No  two  miles 
are  alike.  In  all  it  traverses  five  yawning  canyons,  each 
possessing  a  strange  individuality,  and  crosses  the  moun- 
tain backbone  by  which  the  continent  is  split  in  twain 
by  three  different  passes.  Level  sections  are  practically 


168    RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

unknown.  It  is  one  continuous  up-hill  pull  up  the  one, 
with  a  long  coast  down-hill  with  steam  shut  off,  on  the 
other,  side — a  switchback  upon  a  stupendous  scale. 

Let  us  take  the  route  over  the  Marshall  Pass.  At 
Poncha,  on  the  Atlantic  side,  the  line  is  at  an  altitude  of 
7,480  feet.  The  summit  is  six  miles  away  by  the  iron 
road,  but  in  that  distance  the  train  has  to  climb  steadily  at 
211  feet  to  the  mile  over  an  extremely  meandering  route. 
The  mountains  become  wilder  and  more  broken  as  the 
summit  is  approached.  The  engineer  took  advantage  of 
every  natural  facility  that  opened  up  to  him.  In  turn  the 
rail  crawls  along  ledges  cut  in  the  mountain  flanks,  over 
lofty  embankments,  spidery  trestles,  doubling  and  re- 
doubling upon  itself  in  the  most  amazing  manner.  The 
occasional  presence  of  snow-sheds  draws  attention  to  the 
fact  that  the  metals  are  above  the  snow-line,  and  the  many 
terrible  dangers  to  which  the  track  is  exposed  from 
avalanches  and  landslides. 

Two  huge  engines  are  required  to  negotiate  the  heavy 
ascent,  and  at  last,  when  the  top  is  attained,  the  train  is 
276  feet  in  excess  of  two  miles  above  the  Atlantic  on  the 
eastern,  and  the  Pacific  on  the  western  side,  respectively. 
The  tortuous  path  of  the  iron  road  is  revealed  below  in  a 
graphic  manner.  It  may  be  seen  in  no  less  than  four 
separate  terraces,  rising  in  steps  one  above  the  other,  the 
lowest  being  almost  invisible,  connected  by  huge  loops, 
until  it  finally  winds  away  and  is  lost  in  the  dim  haze  of 
the  horizon.  The  descent  is  a  replica  of  the  ascent— the 
same  gradient  prevailing,  viz.  211  feet  to  the  mile.  No 
steam  power  whatever  is  needed  to  drive  the  train.  It  is 
travel  by  mere  gravitation  alone,  held  in  check  by  the 
powerful  air-brakes. 

Yet  the  railway  is  crossing  the  Divide  at  another  point 
some  miles  to  the  north  rises  twice  to  an  altitude  exceeding 
10,000  feet.  This  is  on  the  extension  of  the  original  line 
from  Pueblo  to  Leadville,  where,  after  leaving  the  mining 
town,  there  is  a  tedious  climb  to  Fremont  Pass,  where  the 
track  is  laid  11,330  feet  above  the  sea.  A  few  miles  to  one 


GRIDIRONING   THE   ROCKY   MOUNTAINS     169 

side  the  line  attains  its  maximum  altitude,  with  11,522  feet, 
at  Ibex  station,  on  a  short  branch  road.  After  negotiating 
the  Pass  there  is  a  sharp  descent  to  Leadville  junction, 
where  another  locomotive  has  to  be  hitched  on  to  haul  the 
train  up  a  bank,  rising  211  feet  to  the  mile,  to  the  summit 
of  Tennessee  Pass,  lying  at  10,240  feet,  the  highest  point 
being  gained  in  a  tunnel,  one  mile  in  length,  bored  through 
the  mountain  peak. 

On  the  southern  section  of  the  system  the  line  passes 
through  some  of  the  wildest  and  most  impressive  country 
it  is  possible  to  conceive,  and  time  after  time  the  construc- 
tional engineer  was  puzzled  sorely  as  to  the  best  route  for 
the  road.  It  overcomes  the  Divide  through  the  Cumbres 
Pass.  On  the  up-hill  pull  the  railway  skirts  a  towering 
mountain  spur,  making  a  detour  of  four  miles  to  circum- 
vent the  obstacle,  and  then  bursts  suddenly  into  a  strange 
country.  Strange  monoliths  rear  up  on  all  sides  their 
fantastically  wind-  and  weather-carved  sides,  glistening 
weirdly  in  the  sunlight.  The  line  swings  round  these 
grotesque  evidences  of  Nature's  handiwork  in  a  sharp  bend 
known  appropriately  as  "Phantom  Curve,"  and  then  dis- 
appears into  the  depths  of  the  Toltec  tunnel,  which  is 
carved  through  solid  granitic  rock  for  some  600  feet.  The 
peculiarity  of  this  work  is  that  it  is  carried  through  the 
crest,  and  not  the  base  of  the  peak,  for  the  opposite  portal 
of  the  tunnel  stands  on  the  brink  of  a  precipice  which  drops 
plumb  a  quarter  of  a  mile  into  the  valley. 

This  gulf  is  spanned  by  a  solid  masonry  bridge  almost 
as  wonderful  as  the  Hanging  Bridge.  It  recalls  a  swal- 
low's nest  built  under  the  eaves  of  a  roof,  for  it  is  thrown 
across  the  gap  to  the  opposite  mountain  ledge  in  the  form 
of  a  balcony.  Sudden  emergence  from  the  inky  blackness 
of  the  mountain's  heart  to  this  frail-looking  link  with  the 
frowning  wall  opposite,  and  the  depth  of  the  fissure  is 
decidedly  startling.  If  the  Eiffel  Tower  were  planted  in 
this  gorge  it  would  be  dwarfed  into  insignificance,  for  its 
topmost  platform  would  be  over  500  feet  below  the  railway 
track.  To  throw  the  bridge  across  this  rift  the  men  had 


i;o    RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

to  be  slung  out  from  derricks,  manipulating  their  trowels 
from  an  unsteady  platform — the  snap  of  a  rope,  a  missed 
footing,  and  certain  death  on  the  splintering  crags  below 
awaited  the  unlucky. 

It  is  upon  this  same  section  that  one  traverses  the  won- 
derful Ophir  Loop,  by  means  of  which  the  Divide  at  Dallas 
is  negotiated.  The  towering  Ophir  mountain  stands 
directly  in  the  path  of  the  line.  A  detour  was  impossible ; 
the  mountain  had  to  be  ascended,  but  in  so  doing  the 
engineer  imposed  a  fearful  task  upon  the  locomotives. 

The  rise  is  4  per  cent.  In  other  words,  for  every  25  feet 
the  train  advances,  it  has  to  rise  12  inches.  The  line  skirts 
the  base  of  the  mountain,  describes  a  sharp  semicircular 
curve,  and  then  runs  directly  backwards,  the  track  being 
parallel  with  that  a  few  feet  below.  The  Stelvio  road  over 
the  Alps  is  a  wonderful  zigzag  climb,  but  it  does  not 
double  and  re-double  more  than  this  ascent  up  Ophir 
mountain.  Terrace  after  terrace  of  track  is  left  below, 
extending  through  cutting,  over  embankment  and  high 
trestles,  until  the  top  is  gained. 

Though  the  ascent  and  descent  of  the  passes  are  impres- 
sive, they  are  equalled  in  their  daring  by  the  winding 
through  the  rugged  canyons  bathed  in  everlasting  shadows 
cast  by  the  mountains.  The  Royal  Gorge  is  only  one  out 
of  five  that  are  threaded.  The  others  are  equally  awe- 
mspiring,  but  each  has  a  totally  different  aspect.  There 
is  Animas  canyon.  The  name  of  the  gorge  is  musical — 
"Rio  de  las  animas  perdidas,"  and  trips  readily  off  the 
tongue,  but  the  Spaniards  were  adept  in  christening 
Nature's  wonders.  "The  River  of  Lost  Souls"  is  melan- 
choly, but  how  strikingly  suitable  !  The  whole  bed  of  the 
canyon  is  occupied  by  the  river.  There  was  no  convenient 
shelf  by  the  water's  side  to  carry  the  track.  The  walls  rise 
vertically  on  either  side,  and  the  foam  of  the  water  as  it 
tumbles  through  the  gulch  is  scattered  high  on  either  wall. 
The  engineer,  deprived  of  a  natural  pathway,  cut  one  for 
himself.  And  it  does  not  cling  to  the  river's  side.  It 
is  high  up  on  one  wall,  and  was  blasted  foot  by  foot  out 


CROSSING  THE  CONTINENTAL  "DIVIDE"  ON  THE  "  MOFFATT  "  ROAD 

The  tram  has  climbed  from  the  track  at  the  bottom  of  the  picture  to  the  top  of  the~'cliff. 


,i 


GRIDIRONING  THE   ROCKY   MOUNTAINS      171 

of  the  solid  rock.  At  one  point  it  is  TOGO  feet  above  the 
water,  and  the  grade  is  necessarily  steep  as  the  river-bed 
rises  very  abruptly  towards  its  upper  end,  where  the  line 
emerges  but  a  few  feet  above  the  water. 

When  the  pioneer  engineers  laid  this  remarkable  railway 
the  exigencies  of  the  present  were  their  sole  concern.  As 
years  rolled  by  the  narrow  gauge  proved  a  handicap,  so 
it  was  converted  to  the  4  feet  8J  inches  gauge.  But  as 
there  was  still  a  considerable  amount  of  narrow-gauge 
traffic,  the  line  is  adapted  for  both  classes  of  working, 
there  being  three  rails  laid,  so  that  it  is  as  easily  available 
for  the  narrow-  as  the  standard-gauge  vehicles.  Then  the 
necessity  arose  for  doubling  the  track  to  give  an  up-and- 
down  main  line  through  Eagle  River  canyon.  The  surveys 
soon  convinced  the  engineer  that  it  was  absolutely  im- 
practicable to  parallel  the  original  line,  as  the  earthworks 
along  the  tortuous  river  could  not  be  widened  to  carry  the 
second  pair  of  metals.  Consequently,  they  had  to  be  laid 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  water,  at  a  cost  of  ,£20,000,  or 
$100,000,  per  mile  for  5  miles.  The  result  is  that  now  the 
river  has  a  canal  appearance,  its  limits  being  bounded  on 
either  side  by  solid  masonry. 

A  few  years  ago  a  well-known  banker  and  prominent 
citizen  of  the  city  of  Denver,  the  late  David  H.  M.  Moffatt, 
the  Silver  King,  created  a  sensation  by  suggesting  that  the 
time  was  opportune  to  give  the  important  trade  centre  in 
which  he  resided  more  direct  communication  with  the 
Pacific  coast.  He  pointed  out  that  before  setting  directly 
westwards,  one  had  either  to  travel  107  miles  to  the  north 
to  join  the  Union  Pacific,  or  1 10  miles  south-east  to  Pueblo. 
Why  should  not  this  mileage  be  saved  and  the  journey 
accelerated  by  following  the  bird's  course  towards  Salt 
Lake  City? 

Notwithstanding  the  severely  broken  character  of  the 
Rockies,  he  decided  to  drive  his  railway  almost  in  an  air- 
line. •  The  surveyors  pointed  out  that  approximately  75 
per  cent,  of  the  track  could  be  laid  along  river  banks  thread- 
ing the  mountains  where  grades  and  curves  could  be  kept 


172     RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF    THE    WORLD 

tolerably  easy.  The  greatest  and  costliest  features  of  the 
scheme  was  the  double  toil  over  the  Great  Divide. 

The  mountain  ramparts  practically  lock  Denver  in  upon 
its  western  side,  and  the  railway  makes  a  direct  plunge 
into  the  mass.  The  South  Boulder  canyon  affords  the 
causeway  for  the  railway  through  the  first  clump.  Cer- 
tainly the  gorge  is  well  named,  for  its  sides  are  ragged  in 
the  extreme,  precipitous,  and  strewn  with  ugly,  projecting 
masses  of  rock. 

Being  unhampered  financially,  the  engineers  were  en- 
joined to  carry  their  work  out  upon  the  most  solid  lines. 
Timber  trestling  across  clefts  on  the  hill-side  was  to  be 
avoided;  the  line  was  to  be  carried  well  above  the  river, 
and  in  such  a  manner  that  easy  alignment  was  secured. 
This  involved  keeping  well  into  the  side  of  the  mountains, 
only  to  meet  obstacles  in  the  form  of  massive  humps  of  rock 
projecting  from  the  slopes.  They  could  not  be  blasted 
away — the  only  solution  was  tunnelling.  Consequently, 
the  train  plays  a  game  of  hide-and-seek  as  it  darts  in  and 
out  a  chain  of  tunnels.  In  the  course  of  13  miles  there  are 
no  less  than  30  tunnels  through  these  spurs,  ranging  from 
73  to  1,720  feet  in  length,  and  aggregating  16,000  feet  in 
all.  It  was  the  constant  recurrence  of  these  tunnels  that 
provoked  a  querulous  traveller  to  ask  why  the  engineers 
did  not  "tunnel  the  range  the  same  as  they  do  in  the  Alps 
and  have  done  with  it  ?  " 

In  order  to  fulfil  the  demand  of  the  "Silver  King,"  heavy 
excavation  was  inevitable.  The  rock  thus  removed  was 
put  to  useful  account  to  fill  crevices  and  rifts  to  avoid 
trestling.  It  was  expensive  construction,  but  at  the  same 
time  it  ensured  an  excellent  permanent  way — permanent 
in  the  fullest  sense  of  the  word. 

When  Boulder  River  canyon  was  threaded  the  rise  to 
the  Continental  Divide  commenced.  The  precise  point  at 
which  this  should  be  effected  demanded  repeated  survey- 
ing, and  some  time  passed  before  the  engineers  found  the 
shortest  and  easiest  path  through  the  range.  This  was  by 
means  of  a  tunnel  through  the  summit.  A  heavy  piece 


GRIDIRONING   THE   ROCKY   MOUNTAINS     173 

of  work  was  advocated — 2\  miles  in  length — but  as  con- 
siderable time  would  be  required  for  its  completion,  it  was 
decided  to  take  the  metals  right  over  the  crests,  with  a 
temporary  line  of  28  miles,  in  order  to  proceed  with  the 
grade  and  to  open  up  the  country  beyond,  leaving  the 
boring  of  the  tunnel  till  a  later  date.  Consequently,  the 
track  was  carried  through  Rollins  Pass,  11,600  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  through  a  world  of  perpetual  snow. 

To  lift  the  line  over  that  summit  proved  a  tremendous 
task  :  it  involved  the  laying  out  of  tremendous  curves  and 
wide,  sweeping  loops.  When  built,  it  was  quite  as  difficult 
to  keep  open  during  the  winter  months,  when  the  Rockies 
are  swept  with  terrific  blizzards,  which  bury  the  steel  high- 
way deeply  beneath  hills  of  snow.  Yet  arrangements  were 
completed  to  meet  this  emergency.  A  rotary  snow-plough, 
the  biggest  and  most  powerful  of  its  type  that  ever  had 
been  designed,  was  acquired.  With  this  huge  machine 
the  snow-gangs  were  out  from  morning  to  night,  but  they 
kept  that  narrow  channel  of  communication  clear,  though 
it  was  almost  a  hopeless  task  at  times. 

While  the  railway  was  being  pushed  on  from  the  western 
side  of  the  range,  the  boring  of  the  tunnel  was  taken  in 
hand.  It  was  urgent,  for  it  reduced  the  summit,  2,200 
feet  below  Rollins  Pass,  the  portals  of  the  tunnel  being 
9,930  feet  above  the  sea  on  either  side,  rising  therefrom 
at  i  in  400  to  the  tunnel's  centre  line. 

Although  the  tunnel  takes  the  bulk  of  the  traffic  both 
summer  and  winter,  the  route  over  Rollins  Pass  has  not 
been  abandoned  entirely.  The  excursion  traffic  mounts  to 
the  1 1, 600  feet,  for  from  that  tremendous  altitude  the  pano- 
rama of  glistening  snow  and  glacier  caps  is  magnificent. 
What  such  a  summit  means  may  be  grasped  better,  per- 
haps, by  comparison  with  the  maximum  altitudes  attained 
on  British  railways.  The  Scottish  Highlands  railway 
rises  to  1,484  feet  above  sea-level  between  Dalwhinnie  and 
Dalnaspiel,  while  the  Great  Western  climbs  to  1,373  feet  at 
Princeton,  Dartmoor.  Such  altitudes  are  trivial  beside  the 
dizzy  summits  attained  on  the  American  continent.  Yet 


174    RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

the  tunnel  under  the  Rollins  Pass  brought  its  own  benefits. 
By  its  provision  the  town  of  Vasquez  on  the  western  slopes 
of  the  Divide  was  brought  25  miles  nearer  Denver,  the 
distance  being  81  miles  by  the  temporary  line  over  the 
Pass,  and  only  56  miles  via  the  tunnel.  Such  reductions 
of  distances,  with  easing  of  grades,  count  materially  in 
questions  of  traffic  nowadays. 


CHAPTER   XIV 

THE   IRON    HORSE   IN   AUSTRALASIA 
I 

PROBABLY  owing  to  its  somewhat  remote  geographical 
situation  in  relation  to  the  busy  centres  of  the  northern 
hemisphere  but  a  hazy  conception  prevails  of  the  great 
activity  that  has  been,  and  still  is  being,  maintained  in 
regard  to  railway  conquests  in  the  far  southern  continent. 
Although  large  expanses  of  its  territory  still  rank  as  terra 
incognita,  the  iron  horse  is  tearing  the  veil  from  the 
unknown  with  amazing  rapidity;  it  is  fulfilling  the  dual 
role  of  exploring  and  colonising  force  simultaneously. 
Several  imposing  feats  of  engineering  have  been  con- 
summated in  the  task  of  wresting  the  interior  stretches  of 
the  country  from  oblivion. 

As  is  well  known,  the  island  continent  is  divided  into 
five  States,  and  each  has  worked  out  its  own  salvation  by 
means  of  an  independent  railway  system,  though  the 
practice  has  been  the  same  in  each  instance.  The  early 
lines  were  laid  through  the  fringe  of  settled  territory  along 
the  coast,  and  some  time  passed  before  the  rails  ventured 
inland.  As  the  agricultural,  forest  and  mineralogical 
wealth  of  the  country  became  known,  however,  and 
attracted  large  flocks  of  settlers,  the  map  was  rolled  back 
by  the  railway  in  the  various  states.  Up  to  the  year 
1870  railway  expansion  developed  very  leisurely.  Then 
there  came  a  sudden  awakening.  Railway  development 
went  forward  with  a  tremendous  rush,  and  this  feverish 
expansion  has  been  maintained  steadily  ever  since. 

The  fact,  however,  that  there  was  no  general  plan  of 
campaign  has  in  a  certain  measure  produced  confusion. 
Each  State  had  to  consider  its  individual  purse  and  to 


1 76    RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

calculate  carefully  how  much  it  could  afford  in  the  work 
of  railway  colonisation.  The  result  is  that  there  is  a  sad 
lack  of  uniformity  among  the  gauges.  Indeed,  Australia 
is  worse  in  this  respect  to-day  than  was  the  United  States 
thirty  years  ago*  In  the  latter  country  three  gauges 
struggled  hard  for  supremacy,  viz.  the  narrow  3  feet 
6  inches  gauge,  the  standard  gauge  of  4  feet  8J  inches, 
and  the  wide  gauge  of  5  feet  6  inches.  In  Australia  the 
gauges  vary  from  2  feet  6  inches  to  5  feet  3  inches.  For 
instance,  New  South  Wales  is  threaded  entirely  by  the 
standard  gauge  of  the  world — 4  feet  8J  inches — for  some 
4000  miles.  Its  neighbour  to  the  south,  Victoria,  favours 
both  the  gauge  of  5  feet  3  inches  and  that  of  2  feet 
6  inches ;  its  western  neighbour,  Western  Australia,  has 
the  wide  gauge  and  the  intermediate  gauge  of  3  feet 
6  inches;  Queensland  adopted  this  gauge  also.  With  such 
a  variegated  system  each  State  becomes  isolated  so  far 
as  through  railway  communication  is  concerned;  change 
of  carriage  at  the  borders  is  inevitable.  This  disadvantage 
is  experienced  emphatically  when  it  comes  to  the  trans- 
portation of  merchandise. 

The  locomotive  made  its  debut  in  Australia  in  1885,  in 
which  year  the  first  length  of  railway  from  Sydney  to 
Paramatta  in  the  oldest  colony  was  opened.  From  that 
small  beginning  extension  did  not  proceed  very  rapidly, 
for  while  the  population  of  New  South  Wales  remained 
small  and  scattered,  the  outlook  from  the  financial  point 
of  view  was  not  promising.  Consequently  the  network 
only  extended  over  473  miles  20  years  later.  Since  1875, 
however,  the  iron  tentacles  have  grown  with  tremendous 
speed,  no  less  than  2,995  miles  of  track  having  been  laid 
in  the  course  of  32  years. 

In  the  early  days,  while  money  was  scarce,  the  cost  of 
construction  had  to  be  kept  down  very  severely.  The 
coast  of  New  South  Wales  is  hemmed  in  by  a  high 
mountain  range,  set  from  20  to  70  miles  back  from  the 
water's  edge.  This  barrier  forms  the  rim  of  a  tableland 
some  200  miles  in  width,  extending  from  the  extreme 


THE  IRON    HORSE   IN   AUSTRALASIA         177 

northern  to  the  southern  border  of  the  State,  and  runs 
roughly  parallel  with  the  shore.  Consequently  it  was 
obvious  that  whatever  direction  the  railways  might  take 
to  tap  inland  territory,  the  mountains  had  to  be  crossed. 
The  State  railway  system  is  divided  into  three  divisions, 
the  main  northern,  southern  and  western  lines  respectively, 
and  the  range  accordingly  is  crossed  at  three  points. 

The  first  subjugation  of  this  rugged,  frowning  barrier 
was  brought  about  by  the  urgent  necessity  to  connect 
Bathurst  with  the  coast  at  Sydney.  Years  before  gold 
had  been  discovered  on  the  highlands  a  flourishing  little 
community  had  sprung  up  and  had  founded  a  promising 
town.  But  the  inhabitants  felt  their  isolation  keenly,  and 
they  petitioned  the  Government  relentlessly  for  railway 
communication.  At  that  time  the  line  had  gained  a 
point  known  as  Penrith,  about  22  miles  from  Sydney, 
lying  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  and  heavy  expensive 
work  confronted  the  engineers  anxious  to  proceed  farther 
inland.  Moreover,  owing  to  the  steepness  with  which 
the  edge  of  the  plateau  rim  dropped  into  the  valley,  it 
was  realised  that  the  metals  would  have  to  be  lifted  quickly 
to  a  great  height.  As  the  engineer  was  handicapped  by 
financial  stringency  he  was  compelled  to  resort  to  heroic 
measures. 

He  set  to  work  and  succeeded  in  reducing  the  costli- 
ness of  the  earthwork  by  adopting  grades  of  i  in  33, 
introducing  what  is  known  as  a  "zigzag."  The  track, 
instead  of  climbing  the  bank  continuously  in  terraces, 
with  curves  connecting  the  successive  tiers,  makes  a 
diagonal  cut  up  the  cliff  face  to  a  dead-end.  From  this 
point  another  stretch  of  line  cuts  similarly  up  the  flank,  to 
terminate  in  another  dead-end,  to  lead  to  another  diagonal 
rise,  and  so  on  until  the  upper  desired  level  is  gained. 
Meiggs  introduced  a  similar  system  when  he  built  the 
Oroya  railway  to  overcome  the  Andes,  and  in  the  days 
the  "zigzag"  was  carried  out  it  was  considered  the  only 
means  of  solving  the  situation  with  the  minimum  of 
expense.  The  grades  on  the  "zigzag"  were  as  heavy  as 

N 


178    RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

i  in  30,  but  their  introduction  served  to  lift  the  track  to 
the  summit  of  the  tableland  3,500  feet  above  sea-level  at 
a  distance  of  28  miles  from  the  capital. 

Some  twenty  years  ago  this  "Small  Zigzag,"  as  it  was 
called  to  distinguish  it  from  the  similar  and  more  imposing 
work  of  the  same  class  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  range, 
was  cut  out.  A  direct  descent  was  provided  by  driving  a 
tunnel  through  the  spur  which  the  zigzag  followed,  and 
the  curves  were  eased.  The  re-alignment  cost  about 
^50,000,  or  $250,000,  but  the  interest  on  this  capital 
expenditure  is  less  than  the  saving  in  the  expense  of 
working  the  trains  over  this  section. 

Gaining  the  top  of  the  spur,  the  railway  continues  a 
gentle  ascent  until  it  notches  an  altitude  of  3,658  feet,  when 
the  descent  of  the  western  slope  commences.  The  Lithgow 
valley  is  the  objective,  and  the  precipice  tumbles  down 
suddenly  for  600  feet.  To  carry  the  line  down  the  moun- 
tain-side appeared  impossible,  and  when  the  engineer-in- 
chief,  the  late  Mr.  John  Whitton,  surveyed  the  scene,  to 
say  that  he  was  perturbed  fails  to  express  his  thoughts 
adequately.  He  could  overcome  the  descent  fairly  easily 
if  he  were  permitted  to  carry  out  tunnelling  operations, 
whereby  he  would  secure  both  easy  grades  and  curves. 
But  he  was  overruled.  Tunnelling  was  considered  too 
expensive  and  could  not  be  countenanced;  in  fact,  the 
whole  conquest  of  the  mountains  provoked  a  long-drawn- 
out  and  bitter  controversy. 

The  general  attitude  towards  railways,  and  the  slight 
knowledge  concerning  their  construction  and  operation  in 
those  early  days,  is  afforded  from  the  engineer-in-chief's 
struggle  with  the  Governor-General  for  permission  to 
follow  his  own  inclinations,  which,  as  he  pointed  out, 
might  entail  heavy  initial  expenditure,  but  would  pay  in 
the  long  run.  When  the  scheme  was  unfolded  and  the 
engineer  admitted  that  the  work,  however  accomplished, 
must  prove  costly,  the  Governor-General  pointed  out  that 
a  highroad  had  been  built  over  the  mountains  for  pedes- 
trian and  wagon  traffic.  Consequently  he  suggested  that 


THE   IRON   HORSE   IN   AUSTRALASIA         179 

this  channel  should  be  used,  that  the  lines  should  be  laid 
in  the  middle  of  the  road,  and  that  the  trains  should  be 
hauled  by  horses  !  The  engineer  had  considerable  diffi- 
culty, and  had  to  resort  to  prolonged  communications  and 
lengthy  explanations,  to  impress  upon  the  official  mind 
that  the  locomotive  was  the  best  means  of  hauling  trains. 
He  became  so  insistent,  and  persecuted  his  demands  so 
relentlessly  that  the  Governor-General,  probably  sick  at 
heart  over  the  whole  thing,  gave  way  at  last  to  the 
engineer's  importunities,  but  stipulated  that  the  construc- 
tional cost  should  not  exceed  ,£20,000,  or  $100,000,  per 
mile. 

By  imposing  this  financial  drag  the  official  possibly 
thought  that  he  had  discomfited  the  engineer.  But  this 
was  by  no  means  the  case.  Certainly  it  ruled  tunnelling 
out  of  consideration  as  a  means  of  overcoming  difficulty, 
but  it  only  served  to  stimulate  the  engineer-in-chief  to 
something  more  startling.  As  he  could  not  make  his  way 
from  the  summit  to  the  lower  level  by  the  direct  route  he 
decided  to  saw  his  way  down  the  precipice.  The  rocky 
wall  rose  up  for  about  470  feet  so  steeply  as  to  defy  a 
mountain  goat  to  secure  a  foothold.  The  surveyors  had 
to  be  lowered  from  the  top  by  means  of  ropes  and  chains 
to  carry  out  their  tasks  with  the  transit  and  level  to  plot 
the  path  for  the  line.  Here  and  there  were  wide,  deep 
V-shaped  rifts  breaking  the  profile  of  the  precipice. 
Massive  arches  in  masonry  were  thrown  across  these 
obstructions,  and  a  path  was  cut  in  the  side  of  the  cliff 
to  carry  the  track. 

The  line  struck  along  the  face  for  about  a  mile,  descend- 
ing steadily  i  in  42  feet.  It  then  came  to  a  dead-end. 
Another  mile  of  track  with  the  same  falling  grade  wound 
backward  to  terminate  in  a  second  dead-end,  and  lower 
down  came  another  mile  of  descent  in  the  reverse  direction 
to  gain  the  valley.  It  required  3  miles  of  line  to  carry 
the  track  downwards  600  feet.  When  one  stood  at  the 
top  of  the  "  Great  Zigzag  "  one  saw  the  three  tiers  of  track 
sawing  the  slope,  to  disappear  finally  in  the  depths  of  the 

N  2 


i8o    RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

valley.  The  engine  in  the  descent  pulled  the  train  down 
the  top  side  of  the  serrated  road  to  the  dead-end,  pushed 
it  backwards  along  the  second  gallery  to  the  second  dead- 
end, and  finally  hauled  it  to  enter  the  depression. 

The  "-Great  Zigzag  "  for  years  stood  as  a  striking  monu- 
ment to  the  ingenuity  responsible  for  the  work,  for  it  is 
even  more  daring  than  Meiggs'  famous  V-switches.  As 
time  passed  and  the  railway  traffic  of  the  State  increased, 
the  heaviness  of  the  grades,  the  sharpness  of  the  curves 
and  the  time  occupied  in  negotiating  the  zigzag,  reacted 
more  and  more  adversely  upon  the  economical  operation 
of  the  line.  Moreover,  it  constituted  a  serious  menace  to 
safety,  although  fortunately  it  never  was  the  scene  of  an 
accident.  Still,  a  proposal  for  its  abolition  was  advanced 
so  far  back  as  1885,  although  it  was  realised  that  heavy 
and  costly  reconstruction  was  the  only  alternative. 

The  proposed  deviation  was  discussed  more  or  less  for 
several  years,  but  was  deferred  from  motives  of  expense. 
But  when  the  traffic  had  gained  the  respectable  proportions 
of  some  2,585,000  tons  in  1908,  it  was  recognised  that  the 
inevitable  could  be  postponed  no  longer.  It  was  pointed 
out  that  if  there  were  no  zigzag  the  number  of  goods 
trains  using  this  part  of  the  line  could  be  cut  down  by 
over  30  per  cent.,  since  a  single  locomotive  would  be 
able  to  handle  a  heavier  load  and  1onger  train  than  was 
possible  at  that  time,  while  so  far  as  passenger  traffic  was 
concerned,  no  less  than  686  hours  could  be  saved  every 
year,  and  operating  expenses  could  be  reduced  50  per 
cent,  upon  this  division. 

Accordingly  the  deviation  was  commenced.  The  surveys 
for  the  new  line  had  been  prepared  by  Mr.  Henry  Deane, 
M.INST.C.E.,  while  engineer-in-chief  for  railway  con- 
struction. He  proposed  a  series  of  tunnels  built  on  a 
gradient  of  i  in  90  running  through  a  number  of  spurs 
projecting  from  the  main  range,  and  although  these 
were  intercepted  by  gulches  the  latter  could  be  filled  with 
the  rock  excavated  from  the  tunnel  borings.  The  line 
in  many  places  hugs  steep  precipices  where  the  land  falls 


BEFORE    THE    EXPLOSION 


THE    BLAST 


THE    CLIFF-FACE    DISLODGED  THE    CLIFF-FACE    BROKEN    UP 

A    HUGE   BLAST 

35, coo  tons  of  rock  were  dislodged  by  10,125  lb.  of  explosives. 


THE    PUTTAPA   GAP   BRIDGE,    2OO   FEET    IN    LENGTH 


THE    HOOKINA   CREEK    BRIDGE 

In  the  summer  the  watercourse  is  dry.     Note  the  measures  adopted  to  protect  the  piers 
from  the  force  of  the  flood  waters. 

TWO   VIEWS    ON   THE   SOUTH   AUSTRALIAN 
GOVERNMENT   RAILWAYS 


THE   IRON    HORSE   IN   AUSTRALASIA         181 

away  vertically  for  a  distance  of  1000  feet  or  so  into  the 
Kinambla  Valley. 

The  task  was  commenced  in  July  1908  under  the 
guidance  of  Mr.  James  Fraser,  M.INST.C.E.,  the  engineer- 
in-chief  for  existing  lines,  to  whom  I  am  indebted  for  this 
information,  and  in  a  short  time  1000  men  were  engaged 
in  boring  the  tunnels  and  making  the  deep,  heavy  cuts 
through  the  sandstone  rock.  All  tunnels  were  attacked 
simultaneously,  and  the  blasting  assumed  heavy  propor- 
tions. In  one  case  a  shaft  was  sunk  practically  to  forma- 
tion-level. When  completed  it  was  charged  with  about 
10,000  pounds  of  blasting  powder  and  125  pounds  of 
gelignite.  It  was  fired  electrically,  and  the  splitting  force 
of  the  explosives  dislodged  35,000  tons  of  rock.  In  another 
case  1000  pounds  of  blasting  powder  were  tamped  home 
in  the  face  of  a  cliff,  and  10,000  tons  of  rock  were  shivered 
to  be  used  for  embanking  purposes. 

In  order  to  rush  the  work  through  at  tip-top  speed, 
special  arrangements  were  made  to  facilitate  the  handling 
of  the  necessary  supplies  and  men,  as  well  as  the  operation 
of  the  tools.  As  the  new  line  passed  350  feet  below  the 
old  line,  connection  between  the  two  at  this  crossing  was 
effected  by  means  of  a  funicular  railway  with  a  grade  of 
i  in  1.87.  The  material  was  brought  by  rail  to  the  upper 
end  of  this  temporary  line,  and  from  a  special  siding  was 
dispatched  direct  on  to  the  works.  A  small  electric 
generating  station  was  set  up,  and  wires  for  the  trans- 
mission of  current  for  power  and  lighting  were  strung 
along  the  route  from  end  to  end  to  compress  the  air  to 
drive  the  rock  drills,  for  the  motors  actuating  the  ventilat- 
ing fans  and  also  the  water-pumps. 

The  scheme  as  originally  planned  provided  for  the 
building  of  6  miles  858  yards  of  new  double  track,  which 
represented  a  saving  of  22  yards  upon  the  line  that  was 
being  displaced,  though  the  curves  and  grades  were  easier. 
It  was  estimated  that  the  earthworks  would  involve  the 
handling  of  466,000  cubic  yards  apart  from  the  tunnel 
borings.  Eleven  tunnels  were  planned,  representing  a 


1 82     RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF    THE    WORLD 

total  length  of  2,991   yards,  but  during  the  work  it  was 
decided  to  cut  out  one  tunnel  as  the  rock  was  found  to 
be  shattered.    Consequently  it  was  converted  into  an  open 
cutting,  the  sides  of  which  are  132  feet  high.     Some  idea 
of  the  speed  with  which  the  task  was  pushed  forward  may 
be  gauged  from  the  fact  that  in  n  months  410,000  cubic 
yards  of  excavation  were  completed,  ij  miles  of  permanent 
way  were  laid  with  a  single  line,  and  1,430  yards  of  the 
tunnelling  were  completed.     The  total  cost  of  the  work 
was    estimated    at    ,£256,000,    or   $1,280,000.      Its    recent 
completion,  although  it  relegates  an  imposing  engineering 
achievement  to  the  limbo  of  things  that  were,  has  resulted 
in  the  creation  of  another  achievement  equally  as  notable. 
In  building  the  north  coast  line  which  connects  Sydney 
with  the  Queensland  border,  a  feat  of  a  totally  different 
character  from   the   zigzag  was   completed.     This   is  the 
massive   bridge,    3000   feet   in   length,    which   carries   the 
track    across    the    Hawkesbury    River,    36    miles    distant 
from   the  capital.     It  is  divided  into  seven   spans,   each 
of    which    measures    416    feet    in    length,    supported    on 
substantial  masonry  piers. 

The  erection  of  this  structure,  which  still  ranks  as  the 
largest  work  of  its  type  in  Australia,  occasioned  consider- 
able difficulty,  both  in  regard  to  the  piers  and  the  setting 
of  the  steel-work  into  position.  Indeed,  it  is  doubtful 
as  to  which  section  of  the  work  provoked  the  greater 
anxiety.  The  difficulty  with  the  piers  was  the  great 
depth  to  w^hich  the  engineers  had  to  descend  to  secure 
a  foundation,  because  in  mid-stream  the  40  feet  of 
water  flows  over  a  bed  of  mud  ranging  up  to  120  feet  in 
thickness. 

The  only  practicable  means  by  which  this  essential  sub- 
aqueous work  could  be  carried  out  was  by  sinking  a  huge 
steel  cylinder  filled  with  concrete.  The  bottom  section  of 
this  huge  tub,  or  caisson,  as  it  is  called,  was  closed,  and 
after  it  was  completed  on  shore  it  was  towed  out  to  the 
site  where  the  pier  was  to  be  erected  and  sunk  by  the 
introduction  of  the  concrete.  The  under  side  of  the  caisson 


THE   IRON   HORSE   IN   AUSTRALASIA         183 

was  fitted  with  a  knife  edge,  by  means  of  which  it  could 
cut  its  way  through  the  soft  soil,  the  driving  force  for  this 
purpose  being  the  weight  of  the  superimposed  concrete. 
The  mud  over  the  area  representing  the  superficies  of  the 
cylinder  bottom  was  removed  from  the  inside  to  enable  the 
mass  to  settle,  down.  The  steel  shell  was  built  up  con- 
tinually from  the  water-level  in  rings,  until  a  solid  founda- 
tion was  gained.  When  this  was  reached  and  deemed 
satisfactory  the  spaces  through  which  the  spoil  from  below 
had  been  withdrawn  were  likewise  filled  with  concrete,  so 
that  the  contents  of  the  cylinder  really  form  a  huge  pillar 
of  concrete  homogeneous  from  end  to  end. 

The  conditions  prevailing  also  compelled  each  span  to 
be  completed  near  the  bank  upon  a  pontoon,  the  steel-work 
being  supported  upon  a  heavy  scaffolding.  The  pontoon 
was  somewhat  shorter  than  the  span  of  steel  which  pro- 
jected an  equal  distance  over  either  end  of  the  former. 
When  all  was  ready,  and  when  the  tide  was  approaching 
its  highest  point,  the  pontoon,  with  its  ungainly  load,  was 
towed  and  was  warped  gently  between  two  adjacent  piers, 
in  such  a  way  that  the  ends  of  the  span  were  brought  into 
their  relative  positions  upon  the  masonry.  The  pontoon 
was  then  made  fast,  and  the  actual  settling  of  the  steel- 
work was  left  to  the  movement  of  the  tide.  As  the  river 
fell,  carrying  the  pontoon  with  it,  the  span  descended 
until  in  due  course  the  ends  rested  on  the  masonry.  The 
water  still  falling,  the  scaffolding  presently  dropped  below 
the  steel-work,  leaving  the  latter  clear  in  position.  Finally, 
when  the  tide  had  fallen  still  more,  the  pontoon  was  cast 
off  and  drawn  away,  leaving  the  two  piers  connected  by 
the  steel. 

Such  methods  demand  extreme  care,  unerring  judgment, 
and  a  readiness  to  meet  any  emergency  on  the  part  of 
the  engineers.  The  American  bridge-builders  who  carried 
out  this  undertaking  had  several  exciting  incidents.  The 
most  thrilling  and  anxious  was  when  one  of  the  pontoons 
got  out  of  control  with  its  precious  freight  and  became 
stranded  on  the  bank,  where  it  had  to  remain  in  a  danger- 


1 84    RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

ous  listing  condition  until  the  tide  rose  again,  to  enable 
it  to  be  floated  off  and  towed  to  its  destination. 

In  comparison  with  the  New  South  Wales  railways,  the 
lines  of  the  other  States  lack  outstanding  features,  yet 
their  work  has  been  attended  with  peculiar  difficulties.  In 
South  Australia,  where  settlement  has  not  proceeded  so 
rapidly  as  in  the  adjacent  State,  the  policy  is  to  build  the 
lines  with  the  minimum  of  cost  to  meet  the  demands  for 
cheap  railways  to  connect  communities  scattered  over  a 
large  area.  That  this  is  a  remunerative  practice  is  borne 
out  by  results.  Although  the  wide  gauge  of  5  feet  3 
inches  is  adopted  on  what  may  be  called  the  trunk  lines 
extending  from  Adelaide  to  the  eastern  border,  to  effect 
junction  with  the  Victorian  railways,  thereby  securing 
through  railway  communication  between  Adelaide  and 
Melbourne  without  change  of  carriage,  the  greater  part 
of  the  railway  system  is  the  narrow  gauge  of  3^  feet. 

The  railway  thus  acts  as  a  pioneering  campaigner  in 
the  fullest  sense  of  the  word,  and  in  this  way  it  has  been 
possible  to  push  the  iron  road  towards  the  heart  of  the 
rich  inland  country  so  far  as  Oodnadatta.  Queensland  is 
practising  the  same  principle,  three  lines  having  been 
forced  slowly  towards  the  eastern  boundary  of  that  State 
in  three  roughly  parallel  lines  from  three  different  points 
on  the  coast — though  the  latter  in  turn  are  connected. 
In  due  course  the  inland  ends  of  these  lines  will  be  joined 
up,  and  there  will  be  a  complete  circle  from  which  spurs 
can  be  driven  to  meet  development. 

Railway  construction  in  South  Australia  is  noticeable 
because  of  the  cheapness  with  which  it  is  carried  out  in 
the  first  place,  with  an  accompanying  economy  in  mainten- 
ance. The  whole  of  the  work  is  effected  for  the  most  part 
by  the  Government  department,  small  contracts  for  con- 
struction only  being  let  on  rare  occasions.  This  policy, 
combined  with  the  application  of  every  modern  appliance 
which  can  establish  reason  for  its  utilisation,  has  been 
eminently  satisfactory  from  every  point  of  view. 

At  the  present  time  the  tendency  is  to  anticipate  the 


THE   IRON   HORSE   IN   AUSTRALASIA         185 

settler,  and  thus,  by  the  provision  of  transportation  facili- 
ties, to  attract  the  farmer  into  the  district.  The  reverse 
is  generally  the  method  adopted — the  farmer  establishes 
himself  on  the  land,  and  then  when  there  is  an  agitation 
for  transport  the  railway  is  advanced.  In  this  State,  how- 
ever, the  railway  creates  the  situation,  and  in  this  manner 
a  large  area  of  good  agricultural  land  has  been  opened  up 
for  cultivation.  This  is  the  policy  which  Mr.  James  J. 
Hill  followed  in  the  western  United  States,  and  its  sound- 
ness in  the  course  of  time  is  demonstrated  conclusively 
from  the  enormous  traffic  which  flows  over  his  systems. 

In  order  that  this  pioneering  may  not  saddle  the  South 
Australian  Government  with  an  unremunerative  heavy 
debt,  the  line  in  the  first  instance  is  of  the  lightest  possible 
description.  As  the  country  traversed  develops  and  more 
traffic  accrues  to  the  road,  rendering  improvement  advis- 
able, the  track  is  overhauled  and  relaid  with  heavier 
metals,  the  lighter  rails  being  shipped  to  another  point 
to  enable  the  pioneering  process  to  be  continued. 

This  is  an  elastic  system  eminently  adapted  to  such  a 
country  as  South  Australia,  which  is  still  in  its  infancy, 
and  where  the  demand  for  railway  communication  is  con- 
fined almost  entirely  to  agricultural  requirements  and  to 
the  transportation  of  farming  produce,  especially  in  the 
more  remote  up-country  districts. 


CHAPTER    XV 

THE   IRON   HORSE   IN  AUSTRALASIA 
II 

WHEREAS  the  Southern  Australian  and  Queensland  rail- 
ways are  called  upon  to  meet  the  demands  of  agriculture, 
the  roads  of  Western  Australia,  on  the  other  hand,  have 
been  laid  out  to  satisfy  the  extensive  mining  movements 
along  the  western  shore  of  the  island  continent.  The 
engineers,  however,  have  not  been  called  upon  to  face 
particularly  stern  grapples  with  Nature,  owing  to  the 
country  traversed  being,  for  the  most  part,  of  a  give-and- 
take  character,  and  to  there  being  an  entire  absence  of  high 
mountains  and  wide,  rushing  rivers.  There  is  only  one 
chain  of  hills  of  any  magnitude  that  has  to  be  crossed  by 
the  lines.  This  is  the  Darling  range,  which  runs  parallel 
with  the  coast  from  near  Geraldton  to  the  southern  extremity 
of  the  country. 

In  order  to  gain  the  gold-fields  around  Coolgardie,  as 
well  as  the  eastern  and  southern  stretches  of  the  State,  the 
difficulties  confronting  the  engineer  in  connection  with  this 
low  ridge  were  not  so  great  as  those  prevailing  in  New 
South  Wales.  For  instance,  only  one  tunnel,  1,096  feet  in 
length,  has  had  to  be  bored.  Indeed,  the  engineer  seized 
the  opportunity  to  build  the  line  cheaply  to  such  an  extent 
that  the  lowest  watermark  in  this  respect,  bearing  in  mind 
the  configuration  of  the  country,  may  be  said  to  have  been 
attained.  True,  the  grades  and  curvature  are  heavy,  the 
former  running  up  to  as  high  as  i  in  50  (2  per  cent.), 
while  the  curves  are  of  266  feet  radius.  Some  of  the  most 
difficult  spurs  in  this  range  are  traversed  by  the  line  which 
taps  the  extensive  coal-fields  in  the  Collie  district — the  bulk 
of  the  coal  used  in  the  State  is  obtained  here — where  sharp 

1 86 


THE   IRON    HORSE    IN  AUSTRALASIA         187 

curves  of  176  feet  radius,  and  banks  rising  i  in  40,  have 
been  introduced. 

The  first  railway  built  in  Western  Australia  was  a  short 
line  from  the  coast  to  Northampton.  This  was  completed 
in  1879.  In  those  early  days  the  finances  of  the  country 
were  at  a  very  low  ebb,  and  the  engineer  was  forced  to  carry 
his  track  through  the  hilly  country  with  the  minimum  of 
earthwork.  The  result  was  that  curves  so  sharp  as  88  feet 
radius  were  adopted. 

The  Upper  Darling  Range  railway  also  deserves  more 
than  passing  notice.  It  leaves  Midland  junction  at  the  foot 
of  the  hills,  and  10  miles  from  Perth.  The  precipitous 
character  of  the  spurs  so  puzzled  the  engineer  that  he  was 
driven  to  imitate  the  method  of  extrication  from  a  difficulty 
of  this  description  practised  in  New  South  Wales.  He  had 
to  "zigzag"  the  line  up  the  face  of  the  bluff.  Another 
feature  of  interest  is  on  the  spur  from  the  eastern  railway, 
known  as  the  Smith's  Mill  branch.  A  deep  cut  had  to  be 
driven  through  a  hill,  which  the  excavators,  when  they  set 
to  work,  found  to  be  a  solid  mass  of  pipe-clay  ! 

Though  the  engineering  trials  on  the  railways  in  this 
State  may  not  compare  in  calibre  with  those  in  other 
countries,  there  is  one  other  difficulty  which  is  far  more 
significant  from  the  railway's  point  of  view.  I  refer  to  the 
question  of  water  supply.  On  the  coast,  where  the  rainfall 
varies  between  15  and  40  inches  per  annum,  this  does  not 
occasion  any  apprehension,  but  rain  becomes  scarcer  and 
scarcer  as  the  great  interior  deserts  are  approached.  This 
condition  prevails  along  a  belt  150  miles  or  so  wide,  ex- 
tending from  Albany  to  Geraldton.  When  the  discovery 
of  gold  at  Coolgardie,  some  twenty  years  ago,  sent  a  wave 
of  excitement  round  the  world,  the  miners  and  others  who 
rushed  to  the  El  Dorado  suffered  terribly  from  the  dearth 
of  this  indispensable  commodity,  and  when  the  mines  were 
set  to  work  it  hampered  operations  to  a  very  pronounced 
degree.  In  the  gold  country  the  rainfall  does  not  exceed 
six  inches  per  annum,  and  consequently  water  had  to  be 
husbanded  carefully. 


1 88     RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF    THE    WORLD 

The  mining  activity,  however,  brought  about  a  remark- 
able expansion  in  the  iron  road,  which  pushed  inland  for 
nearly  600  miles.  Then  the  water  question  became  one  of 
vital  importance,  because  the  locomotives  required  copious 
and  frequent  drinks  to  slake  their  tremendous  thirsts.  To 
bring  this  article  up  from  the  coast  was  costly.  The  scanty 
rainfall  was  collected  so  far  as  possible  by  impounding, 
but  the  water  thus  secured  was  found  to  be  useless  for  the 
railway's  purposes.  It  became  so  heavily  charged  with 
deleterious  substances,  as  it  flowed  over  a  salt-impregnated 
soil,  that  it  set  up  heavy  incrustation  in  the  boilers. 

This  was  a  serious  drawback,  because  it  reduced  the  life 
of  the  engine's  internal  organs  very  materially,  and  mili- 
tated against  the  iron  horse's  efficiency.  To  remedy  this 
state  of  affairs,  the  earthen  dams  constructed  at  various 
points  along  the  route,  which  formed  small  reservoirs, 
were  supplemented  by  condensing  plants.  The  most 
notable  installation  of  this  description  was  completed  at 
Coolgardie.  This  plant  was  designed  primarily  to  utilise 
the  salt  water  from  the  adjacent  mines.  The  Coolgardie 
condenser  was  capable  of  supplying  about  60,000  gallons 
of  fresh  water  per  day,  at  a  cost  of  375.  6d.,  or  say  $9  per 
looo  gallons,  and  to  furnish  this  requirement  entailed  an 
expenditure  of  ^15,000,  or  $75,000,  on  the  apparatus.  A 
large  distilling  apparatus  was  set  up  also  at  Geraldton  to 
supply  the  Northern  railway  running  into  the  Murchison 
gold-fields,  where  the  water  question  was  also  a  serious 
factor. 

While  this  palliative  met  the  situation  up  to  a  certain 
point,  it  was  far  from  satisfactory.  Consequently,  a  few 
years  ago  a  huge  project  was  evolved  to  supply  the  Cool- 
gardie gold-fields  with  unlimited  quantities  of  excellent 
water.  A  large  dam  was  thrown  across  a  rift  on  the  western 
slope  of  the  Darling  range  about  20  miles  from  Perth, 
whereby  4,600,000,000  gallons  of  water  are  banked  up. 
The  water  is  dispatched  from  this  reservoir  to  the  gold- 
fields  350  miles  away  through  a  pipe  30  inches  in  diameter, 
which  is  sufficient  to  ensure  the  inhabitants  in  the  gold 


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THE   IRON   HORSE   IN   AUSTRALASIA         189 

country  receiving  a  steady  and  continuous  supply  of 
5,000,000  gallons  per  day.  At  intervals  along  the  line 
large  intermediate  tanks  are  provided,  together  with  pump- 
ing plants.  As  the  pipe-line  runs  alongside,  and  the 
pumping  stations  are  situate  beside  the  railway,  the  latter 
can  now  secure  ample  supplies  of  pure  water,  so  that  the 
Eastern  Gold-fields  railway  is  concerned  no  longer  with 
troubles  in  this  direction. 

Great  activity  is  being  displayed  now  in  opening  up  the 
country  in  suitable  districts  alongside  the  main  line,  where 
fruit-growing  can  be  practised  with  distinct  success.  These 
agricultural  roads  are  built  lightly  in  the  first  instance  to 
reduce  capital  outlay,  the  average  cost  being  about  ;£  1,200, 
or  $6,000,  per  mile,  but  these  lines  will  be  replaced  by 
heavier  metals  as  the  land  becomes  settled. 

The  Western  Australian  railways  now  extend  for  about 
2,500  miles  through  the  State,  and,  in  addition,  private 
enterprise  is  represented  by  the  Midland  Railway  Com- 
pany, which  runs  from  a  point  10  miles  out  of  Perth 
northwards  for  276  miles  to  Walkaway,  whence  Geraldton 
is  reached  by  a  Government  line.  In  addition,  there  are 
numerous  short  roads  belonging  to  companies  working  the 
resources  of  the  country,  especially  of  timber,  but  one  and 
all  have  adopted  the  narrow  3^  feet  gauge  so  as  to  secure 
uniformity  and  intercommunication.  Bearing  in  mind  the 
undulating  and  easy  nature  of  the  country,  railway  con- 
structional costs  have  not  been  heavy.  On  the  trunk  lines 
outside  the  Darling  range  the  cost  has  varied  from  ,£3,000 
to  ^"4,000 — $15,000  to  $20,000 — per  mile,  according  to  the 
distance  from  the  coast.  The  heaviest  expenditure  was 
incurred  in  traversing  the  Darling  Mountains,  where  the 
expenditure  ranged  between  £4,000  and  ,£7,500 — $20,000 
and  $37,500 — per  mile. 

During  the  past  few  years  the  question  of  building  an 
Australian  trans-continental  railway  has  been  brought  to 
the  fore,  the  idea  being  to  link  up  the  railways  on  the 
eastern,  with  those  on  the  western,  sides  of  the  continent. 
Such  a  railway  would  be  of  far-reaching  strategical  im- 


190    RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

portance,  and  Lord  Kitchener,  during  his  visit  to  the 
Antipodes,  urged  its  necessity.  The  proposal  comprises 
the  connection  of  Kalgoorlie  in  the  Coolgardie  district  with 
Fort  Augusta  in  the  neighbouring  State  of  South  Australia, 
whence  Adelaide,  Melbourne,  Sydney  and  Rockhampton  on 
the  Queensland  coast  could  be  reached  by  rail  from  Perth. 
To  complete  such  a  scheme  would  entail  the  crossing  of 
the  edge  of  the  Victoria  desert,  but  as  the  physical  char- 
acter of  the  country  does  not  offer  any  great  difficulties,  it 
is  estimated  that  the  1,070  miles  of  line  could  be  built  for 
,£5, 000,000,  or  $25,000,000. 

When  the  States  were  federated,  Western  Australia, 
feeling  that  it  was  cut  off  from  its  sister  States,  concluded 
that  if  it  co-operated  to  form  a  homogeneous  common- 
wealth, the  construction  of  a  trans-continental  highway 
would  follow  as  a  matter  of  course.  This  anticipation 
caused  the  western  state  to  throw  in  its  lot  with  the  other 
territories.  Western  Australia  for  a  long  time  previous 
had  cherished  the  idea  of  connecting  itself  physically  with 
the  east  by  means  of  the  iron  road,  but  it  was  not  financially 
in  the  position  to  undertake  the  project  unaided.  Still  it 
authorised  one  of  its  engineers,  Mr.  John  Muir,  to  run 
through  the  country  it  was  intended  to  traverse,  and  to 
report  generally  upon  the  feasibility  of  the  scheme. 

The  journey  undertaken  by  this  engineer  gives  an  inter- 
esting sidelight  as  to  the  task  of  surveying  a  new  road  in 
Australia,  especially  in  the  lesser-known  hinterland.  Mr. 
Muir  organised  a  small  party,  with  camels  as  the  vehicles 
of  transport.  The  beasts  numbered  twelve  in  all,  five  being 
utilised  for  riding  purposes  and  the  remainder  as  pack- 
animals,  carrying  the  restricted  requirements  for  the  little 
party.  They  set  out  from  the  most  easterly  point  to  which 
the  Western  Australian  railways  had  penetrated  in  the 
requisite  direction.  Leaving  the  gold-field  country,  they 
entered  the  great  Victoria  Desert.  Water  was  the  one 
difficulty  they  apprehended,  for  they  knew  from  the  experi- 
ences of  various  explorers  in  this  arid  belt  that  this  com- 
modity could  be  found  only  here  and  there.  The  camels, 


THE   IRON    HORSE   IN    AUSTRALASIA         191 

consequently,  were  restricted  to  short  rations— one  drink 
every  five  days,  the  party  carrying  sufficient  of  the  liquid 
to  meet  its  own  needs  during  the  intervals.  The  animals 
evidently  did  not  appreciate  these  strict  regulations,  because 
the  party,  whenever  they  left  a  water-hole,  had  the  greatest 
difficulty  in  persuading  the  camels  to  continue  the  journey, 
and  even  when  they  did  resume  the  trail  the  beasts  fre- 
quently stopped  to  turn  their  heads  longingly  in  the 
direction  of  the  last  water  station. 

This  small  party  covered  1000  miles,  collecting  valuable 
data,  which,  upon  return,  was  investigated  searchingly  and 
compared  with  the  information  that  other  travellers  had 
gathered  when  piercing  the  country  at  different  times.  As 
a  result  a  comprehensive  scheme  was  drawn  up,  and  the 
possibilities  of  such  through  communication  were  revealed 
in  no  uncertain  manner. 

Some  years  later  the  Commonwealth  sanctioned  the  com- 
pletion of  a  more  exhaustive  survey,  Mr.  H.  Deane, 
M.INST.C.E.,  formerly  engineer-in-chief  to  the  New  South 
Wales  railways,  being  placed  in  charge  of  the  whole  under- 
taking. The  enterprise  was  divided  into  two  sections,  the 
Federal  Government  undertaking  to  complete  the  task  from 
Coolgardie  to  the  eastern  frontier  of  Western  Australia, 
while  South  Australia  decided  to  complete  the  work  so  far 
as  it  affected  its  own  territory.  Mr.  John  Muir,  who  had 
been  through  the  country  previously  for  the  Western 
Australian  Government,  was  selected  by  the  chief  engineer 
as  first  lieutenant  on  the  former  division,  and  he  enrolled 
four  other  surveyors. 

For  this  task  no  less  than  91  camels  were  acquired.  Of 
this  total  36  animals  were  deputed  to  haul  three  team- 
wagons,  a  like  number  were  subdivided  into  three  strings 
of  pack-animals,  three  carried  stakes  for  locating  the  line, 
while  the  others  were  used  for  various  purposes.  An 
important  task  was  the"  distribution  of  stores  to  the  extent 
of  18  tons  along  the  route  for  the  survey  party,  together 
with  ample  supplies  of  water  for  both  man  and  beast,  the 
water  stations  being  spaced  at  intervals  of  7  miles. 


1 92     RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

To  plot  the  route  the  chief  surveyor  set  out  ahead  of  the 
main  party.  He  ran  the  line  by  the  aid  of  a  compass,  and 
checked  his  work  by  means  of  stellar  observations.  The 
last  camel  in  his  train  was  required  to  haul  a  heavy  bullock- 
chain,  the  free  extremity  of  which  was  knotted,  and  as  this 
dragged  over  the  ground  it  left  a  trail  which  could  be 
picked  up  and  followed  easily  by  the  main  party  following 
in  the  rear.  The  latter  measured  the  distance  by  chains  and 
took  levels  at  frequent  points,  and  these  were  checked 
constantly.  This  survey  party  moved  forward  at  the  rate 
of  6  miles  per  day,  and  it  covered  the  Western  Australian 
section  of  455  miles  in  89  days. 

The  South  Australian  Government  engineers  experienced 
greater  difficulty  in  completing  their  part  of  the  work,  for 
on  their  section,  extending  over  608  miles,  the  scarcity  of 
water  was  felt  acutely.  They  were  caught  by  the  intensely 
hot  summer,  which  dried  up  all  available  founts  of  supply 
speedily,  and  consequently  the  men  and  the  80  camels 
could  not  advance  very  rapidly,  their  daily  movement 
averaging  about  3  miles.  In  due  course  they  gained  the 
inter-state  boundary  and  picked  up  the  last  stake  indicating 
the  route  left  by  the  party  which  had  advanced  westwards 
from  Kalgoorlie. 

A  sum  of  ^20,000,  or  $100,000,  was  expended  upon 
this  preliminary  work.  In  addition  to  location,  other  valu- 
able details  were  secured,  the  most  important  of  which  was 
in  regard  to  the  economic  possibilities  of  the  territory 
traversed.  Far  from  much  of  the  country  being  sterile,  as 
previous  reports  had  indicated,  it  was  ascertained  that, 
under  proper  scientific  farming,  it  could  be  brought  to  a 
high  standard  of  fertility  and  productiveness.  There  is 
one  long  doubtful  stretch  of  107  miles  through  a  waterless 
plain,  but  if  it  were  possible  to  adopt  irrigation,  there  are 
great  hopes  that  this  country  might  be  found  excellent  for 
grazing  purposes. 

The  standard  gauge  was  advocated  for  the  trans-conti- 
nental highway,  and  it  was  pointed  out  that  if  this  con- 
nection were  forged,  not  only  would  the  line  prove  of 


THE  IRON   HORSE   IN  AUSTRALASIA        193 

distinct  military  value,  but  that  it  would  possess  great 
commercial  attractions  as  well.  For  instance,  there  is  a 
considerable  and  increasing  trade  between  the  Coolgardie 
goldfields  country  and  the  eastern  States,  which  has  to 
be  carried  out  by  steamer  at  present,  involving  a  long, 
tedious  journey,  whereas  by  rail  the  two  centres  would  be 
brought  within  direct  and  accelerated  connection  of  one 
another.  Another  feature  was  emphasised  also,  and  that 
was  the  great  saving  in  time  possible  by  dispatching  the 
European  mails  and  passenger  traffic  overland  from  east  to 
west,  instead  of  by  sea  as  at  present. 

The  Commonwealth  appears  resolved  to  carry  the  scheme 
to 'fulfilment,  especially  in  view  of  Lord  Kitchener's  strong 
advocacy  of  the  project,  and  when  this  is  accomplished 
passengers  landing  at  Fremantle  will  be  able  to  travel  by 
rail  so  far  as  Rockhampton  in  Queensland,  a  distance  of 
3,800  miles.  Owing  to  the  varying  gauges  in  Australia, 
such  a  journey  would  involve  no  less  than  five  changes  of 
carriages  at  least,  and  this  is  the  one  great  disadvantage 
connected  with  the  scheme. 

In  order  to  observe  railway  engineering  in  its  most 
spectacular  form  in  the  Antipodes  one  must  cross  the  Tas- 
man  Sea  into  New  Zealand.  The  England  of  the  South 
is  provided  with  a  backbone  of  lofty  and  extremely  broken 
ridges.  Indeed,  the  advance  of  the  railway-builder  through 
this  country  has  been  beset  with  abnormal  obstacles  which 
recall  the  conquests  of  the  Rocky  and  Cascade  mountains  in 
North  America.  The  most  outstanding  feature  on  the 
whole  network  of  railways  operated  by  the  Government  is 
the  amazing  number  of  bridges,  the  cost  of  which  must 
represent  a  huge  sum.  In  the  early  days  chasms  and 
gorges  which  the  railway  was  forced  to  cross  were  spanned 
by  wooden  structures,  but  these  have  since  been  replaced 
by  substantial  and  often  lofty  steel  structures.  Whenever 
the  engineer  has  essayed  to  leave  the  coast  on  either  side  of 
the  island,  the  mountains  have  reared  up  to  dispute  his 
advance,  and  it  has  been  only  by  dint  of  great  effort  that 
the  metals  have  been  carried  over  these  great  barriers. 


i94    RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

At  the  present  time  the  country  has  one  gigantic  project 
in  hand  which  is  without  a  parallel  south  of  the  Equator. 
This  is  the  Otira  tunnel,  which  is  being  driven  for  5j  miles 
under  the  gorge  of  the  same  name.  This  great  work  occurs 
on  the  line  which  is  destined  to  connect  Christchurch  on  the 
east,  with  Greymouth  on  the  west,  coast  of  the  South  Island. 
The  two  points  are  separated  by  the  Southern  Alps,  many 
peaks  of  which  jut  12,000  feet  into  the  clouds.  This  under- 
taking was  commenced  by  private  enterprise,  but  when 
35  miles  of  the  line  had  been  completed,  the  physical  diffi- 
culties to  be  overcome  were  found  to  be  so  great  that  the 
company  shrank  from  attempting  the  apparently  impos- 
sible, and  accordingly  the  ambitious  idea  was  abandoned. 

The  result  was  that  the  Government  took  the  railway  over 
and  determined  to  penetrate  the  mountain  chain  at  all 
hazards.  The  Otira  tunnel,  though  the  most  notable 
feature,  Is  but  one  of  many  notable  works,  for  the  bridges 
and  smaller  tunnels  compel  just  as  much  attention.  To 
give  some  idea  of  their  frequency  and  character  it  may  be 
mentioned  that,  in  a  short  length  of  9  miles,  there  are  4 
high  steel  viaducts,  one  of  which  carries  the  rails  236  feet 
above  the  floor  of  the  gorge,  and  no  less  than  1 7  short 
tunnels,  the  longest  of  which  is  about  2000  feet,  while 
there  is  scarcely  a  mile  of  level  line  !  The  grades  on  this 
railway  in  some  cases  are  very  severe,  that  through  the 
Otira  tunnel  itself  being  2  per  cent.,  or  i  in  50. 

From  the  earliest  days  one  dream  had  occupied  the  at- 
tention of  all  concerned  in  New  Zealand's  welfare  and 
progress.  This  was  a  trunk  railway  from  Wellington  to 
Auckland.  The  fact  that  only  some  450  miles  separated 
the  two  cities  by  a  feasible  route  was  hammered  home  vehe- 
mently by  enthusiasts,  but  it  was  some  time  before  the 
requisite  courage  and  determination  to  effect  the  connection 
could  be  summed  up.  Pessimists  pointed  out  the  great 
mountains  and  deep,  wide  gorges  that  would  have  to  be 
conquered,  and  the  enormous  expenditure  their  subjuga- 
tion by  the  steel  highway  would  entail.  To-day,  however, 
the  North  Island  Trunk  railway  connects  the  two  points, 


K    W 


8 

^S  o 


THE  IRON   HORSE   IN  AUSTRALASIA        195 

but  it  proved  a  prodigious  undertaking,   calling  for  the 
display  of  remarkable  ingenuity. 

The  early  surveyors  pointed  out  that  Mount  Ruapehu 
would  demand  much  hard  and  heavy  thinking  on  the  part 
of  the  engineers.  So  it  proved.  The  railway  skirts  the 
base  of  this  peak,  but  has  to  make  a  stiff  ascent  in  a  short 
distance.  The  engineer  did  not  resort  to  a  zigzag  to  over- 
come the  difficulty,  but  profited  from  the  example  of  Hell- 
wag  on  the  St.  Gotthard,  who  had  to  extricate  that  line 
from  a  similar  tight  corner.  Recourse  was  made  to  a 
spiral.  The  result  is  that  the  railway  emerges  from  a 
tunnel  burrowed  through  a  crest,  and  shortly  after  sweeps 
round  in  a  graceful  curve  to  cross  the  tunnel  through  the 
same  obstruction;  the  railway  overcomes  the  steep  ascent 
by  means  of  a  stretch  of  corkscrew  track. 

Near  the  base  of  the  same  mountain  there  is  a  deep 
gorge  over  which  the  line  was  forced  to  pass.  From  the 
point  at  which  the  track  gained  the  brink  it  was  about  800 
feet  to  the  opposite  cliff  edge,  and  the  precipice  delved  down 
to  nearly  300  feet.  This  is  the  famous  Makatote  Gorge, 
and  the  engineer  decided  to  spring  across  the  gap. 

The  contract  was  secured  by  Messrs.  J.  &  A.  Anderson 
of  Christchurch,   and  they  lost  no  time  in  attacking  the 
task.    When  they  appeared  on  the  scene  there  was  no  road 
to  the  site  of  the  viaduct,  and  the  railway  was  still  20  miles 
distant,  so  the  prospect  was  not  inviting.     The  sides  of  the 
mountain   were  covered  with   dense   primeval   jungle-like 
bush,  \vhich  had  to  be  hacked  back  to  permit  of  investiga- 
tions of  the  situation,  and  six  months  passed  before  the 
wagon  road  for  the  purposes  of  the  railway  was  driven 
through  the  district.     This  constituted  the  only  channel 
over  which  the  requisite  steel  material  could  be  transported. 
The   constructional   engineers   concluded   that   the   best 
means  of  meeting  the  situation  was  to  erect  a  workshop  on 
the  spot  where  the  necessary  steel-work  could  be  prepared. 
Electricity   was    generated    to    operate    the    various    tools 
demanded.      The  rainfall   averaged  about  96   inches   per 
year,  and  at  times  the  insignificant  stream  flowing  through 
o  2 


196    RAILWAY   CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

the  V-shaped  fissure  was  nothing  but  a  foaming  torrent, 
sweeping  everything  away  in  its  mad  rush. 

The  constructional  engineers  were  faced  with  the  erection 
of  one  tower  springing  from  the  bank  of  the  waterway 
beneath  to  a  height  of  270  feet,  while  other  towers  of  249, 
208,  175  and  1 10  feet  in  height  respectively  were  demanded. 
The  spans  were  of  equal  length,  viz.  100  feet,  flanked  on 
either  side  by  approaches,  and  the  undertaking  called  for 
the  use  of  about  1000  tons  of  steel. 

The  foundations  comprise  concrete  pedestals  which  were 
sunk  into  the  ground,  and  these  carry  steel  towers  some- 
what after  the  American  pattern,  giving  lightness,  with 
rigidity  and  strength.  Every  piece  of  steel  was  riveted  to 
its  neighbour  by  means  of  pneumatic  tools,  which  not  only 
expedited  the  task  of  securing  the  sections  together,  but 
eliminated  the  possibility  of  accidents  arising  from  the 
swinging  of  sledge-hammers,  especially  at  the  greatest 
heights.  The  spans  of  steel  connecting  each  tower  with  its 
neighbour  were  erected  from  the  rail  level,  without  recourse 
to  false-work.  Owing  to  the  many  and  careful  pre- 
cautionary methods  adopted,  the  erecting  work  was  carried 
through  without  the  slightest  hitch  or  the  loss  of  a  single 
life.  When  the  task  was  completed  the  strength  of  the 
constructional  engineers'  handiwork  was  tested  thoroughly 
by  a  train  of  the  heaviest  locomotives  used  upon  the  New 
Zealand  railway  being  run  across  the  bridge  at  varying 
speeds,  until  the  maximum  attained  in  practice  was  reached. 
The  Makatote  Viaduct  stands  as  one  of  the  finest  pieces  of 
its  work  of  this  type  that  ever  has  been  completed  in  the 
Antipodes. 

Another  striking  engineering  achievement  was  the  build- 
ing of  the  Central  Otago  railway  which  runs  from  Dunedin 
to  the  interior  of  Otago.  The  line  not  only  threads  knots 
of  mountains,  but  also  spans  numerous  rifts.  Indeed,  so 
much  bridging  became  necessary  that  the  railway  has 
become  known  as  "The  Bridge  Line."  In  completing  this 
road  nearly  every  type  of  structure  known  to  the  engineer 
was  adopted.  The  largest  structure  is  the  Wingatui  Via- 


THE   IRON   HORSE   IN   AUSTRALASIA        197 

duct,  where  the  rail  is  carried  about  146  feet  above  the  floor 
of  a  broken,  winding  gorge  on  a  creation  of  steel  comprising 
three  spans,  each  measuring  196  feet  in  length,  and  five 
smaller  spans,  each  of  66  feet,  supported  on  pyramidal 
steel  towers.  Another  work  of  a  similar  character  is  the 
Flat  Creek  Viaduct,  where  the  fail  runs  across  the  rift 
about  100  feet  above  its  deepest  part  in  six  spans  of  66  feet 
each.  These  mountain  creeks,  it  may  be  pointed  out,  are 
simply  masses  of  rocky  boulders  in  the  dry  season,  but 
when  they  are  called  upon  to  carry  away  the  accumulation 
of  water,  they  are  nothing  but  torrents  tearing  along  with 
fiendish  turbulence,  and  bearing  down  considerable  quan- 
tities of  heavy  stones,  against  the  batterings  of  which  the 
erections  of  the  engineer  would  be  futile  were  they  not 
carried  out  upon  the  most  substantial  lines.  In  contrast 
to  the  permanent  metallic  structures  is  the  Waian  timber 
trestle  on  the  South  Island  main  trunk  line,  which  measures 
no  less  than  613  feet  from  end  to  end.  Verily,  New  Zealand 
may  be  described  as  the  land  of  the  bridge-builder  in 
excelsis,  owing  to  such  varied  opportunities  to  demonstrate 
his  skill. 


CHAPTER    XVI 

ACROSS    SIBERIA   BY   RAIL 

THE  success  with  which  San  Francisco  was  brought 
within  two  or  three  weeks  of  Europe  by  means  of  the 
Union  and  Central  Pacific  railways  prompted  far-seeing 
individuals  to  aspire  for  a  similar  acceleration  of  travel 
around  the  other  half  of  the  northern  hemisphere.  This 
could  be  done  by  driving  the  iron  road  straight  across 
Europe  and  Asia,  and  it  was  pointed  out,  in  support  of 
the  scheme,  that  the  industrial  and  commercial  centres  of 
western  Europe  would  be  brought  within  about  a  fort- 
night's journey  of  China. 

The  construction  of  a  railway  across  Siberia  was  dis- 
cussed for  over  half  a  century.  In  1851  Count  Mouraviev- 
Amoursky,  the  Governor-General  of  Eastern  Siberia,  sug- 
gested that  he  should  be  brought  into  more  immediate 
touch  with  the  heart  of  the  Russian  Empire.  He  sug- 
gested that  first  a  highroad  should  be  built  across  the 
continent,  upon  which  the  iron  rails  should  be  laid  later, 
thus  converting  the  channel  of  vehicular  and  pedestrian 
traffic  into  a  railway. 

It  was  a  brilliant  idea,  but  like  many  other  great  schemes 
suffered  from  being  premature.  However,  as  Siberia 
developed,  the  building  of  independent  railway  lines  in 
various  parts  of  the  country,  to  be  connected  together  by 
short  links,  thereby  forming  a  chain  of  railways  stretch- 
ing from  the  Baltic  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  was  mooted 
frequently.  The  Government  viewed  the  recommendations 
sympathetically,  but  nothing  definite  was  arranged. 

In  1869  the  administrative  authorities  scattered  through- 
out Asiatic  Russia  became  so  energetic  in  their  demands 
for  improved  communication  with  western  Europe  that  the 

198 


ACROSS   SIBERIA   BY   RAIL  199 

Government  entertained  seriously  the  bonding  of  the 
empire.  The  question  arose,  however,  as  to  the  most 
advantageous  location.  What  direction  should  it  follow 
in  order  to  serve  the  most  promising  interests  from  an 
economic  point  of  view  ?  This  was  a  problem  that 
demanded  searching  investigation,  but  meanwhile  the 
railway  commenced  to  move  eastwards,  the  existing  system 
of  Russia  in  Europe  being  driven  more  and  more  towards 
the  Ural  Mountains.  By  1888  the  railhead  was  within 
easy  reach  of  the  eastern  frontier  of  Europe,  having  gained 
Zlatoost. 

A  halt  was  called  at  this  juncture.  The  outposts  of 
steel  were  three  in  number,  Orenburg,  Tioumen  on  the 
Asiatic  side  of  the  Urals  and  connected  with  Ekaterin- 
burg, and  Zlatoost.  A  decision  was  necessary  to  deter- 
mine which  of  these  three  railheads  should  be  the  jumping- 
off  point  for  the  long  toil  through  Siberia.  Three  surveys 
were  made,  and  as  a  result  of  prolonged  consideration  of 
the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  respective  routes 
from  every  point  of  view,  among  the  most  important  of 
which  was  the  question  of  cost,  Zlatoost  was  selected  as 
the  most  favourable  starting-point.  From  that  point  the 
location  was  by  way  of  Tcheliabinsk-Kourgan-Petro- 
pavlovsk-Omsk-Tomsk-Krasnoiarsk  to  Nijneoudinsk,  as 
this  offered  the  shortest  length  of  line,  traversed  the  most 
densely  populated  and  most  fertile  country,  and  at  the 
same  time  could  be  built  far  cheaper  than  either  of  the 
alternative  routes. 

It  was  recognised  that  the  line  would  entail  the  expendi- 
ture of  a  huge  sum  of  money,  no  matter  how  cheaply  it 
was  constructed,  and  that  there  could  be  no  hope  of  any 
return  upon  the  investment  for  many  years  to  come  owing 
to  the  unsettled  character  of  the  country.  Accordingly  it 
was  decided  to  avoid  all  pretentious  engineering  exploits 
— in  fact,  to  build  the  line  upon  pioneer  principles.  A 
five-foot  gauge  was  adopted  to  harmonise  with  European 
Russia,  and  in  order  to  cut  the  cost  of  construction  down 
to  the  lowest  possible  figure  the  lightest  material  was 


200    RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

employed,  the  rails,  for  instance,  only  weighing  54  pounds 
per  yard.  It  was  realised  that  the  paramount  condition 
was  to  open  up  the  land  and  its  resources  without  delay, 
and  to  overhaul  the  line  as  traffic  increased,  thereby 
bringing  it  gradually  into  conformity  with  the  generally 
accepted  standards  of  a  modern  railway. 

As  the  project  was  of  such  far-reaching  significance  to 
the  Russian  Empire  it  was  resolved  that  it  should  be 
carried  out  as  a  national  undertaking.  Every  ounce  of 
material  required  was  to  be  fashioned  in  Russian  work- 
shops— there  was  only  one  important  departure  from  this 
decision,  and  that  was  the  construction  of  the  huge  ice- 
breaking  ferries  on  Lake  Baikal,  which,  being  beyond  the 
capacity  of  the  Russian  builders,  were  designed  and  con- 
structed at  the  Elswick  works  of  Sir  W.  G.  Armstrong, 
Whitworth  &  Company,  Limited — and  that  it  should  be 
built  by  Russian  labour  under  Russian  engineers  with 
Russian  money.  It  was  an  Imperial  enterprise  from  end 
to  end. 

To  govern  the  work  of  construction  a  national  com- 
mittee was  established,  composed  of  interested  ministers, 
under  the  presidency  of  the  Grand  Duke  Heritier,  the 
present  Tsar,  who  upon  his  ascent  to  the  throne  retained 
his  seat  upon  this  commission.  Indeed,  the  Emperor  has 
displayed  the  greatest  interest  in  this  undertaking  from 
its  inception,  and,  in  fact,  inaugurated  the  work  by  laying 
the  stone  commemorating  the  turning  of  the  first  sod  at 
Vladivostok  on  May  18,  1891,  during  his  visit  to  the 
East. 

Owing  to  the  gigantic  character  of  the  work  it  was 
divided  into  several  distinct  sections  comprised  as 
follows — 

MILES 

1.  The    Western     Siberian     Railway    from 

Tcheliabinsk  to  Obi      ....       885-14 

2.  The  Central  Siberian  Railway  from  Obi  to 

Irkutsk,  subdivided  into  two  parts,  the 
first  from  Obi  to  Krasnoiarsk,  and  the 
second  from  Krasnoiarsk  to  Irkutsk  .  114375 


ACROSS   SIBERIA   BY   RAIL  201 

MILES 

3.  The    Baikal    Railway   from     Irkutsk    to 

Myssovaia      ......       192 

4.  The  Trans-Baikal  Railway  from  Myssovaia 

to  Stretensk  ......       690*4 

5.  The   Amur    Railway   from    Stretensk   to 

Khabarovsk    .....         .     138375 

6.  The    Ossouri   Railway  from   Khabarovsk 

to  Vladivostok       ..... 


This  was  the  manner  in  which  the  4,771  miles  of  line  con- 
stituting the  link  between  the  Urals  and  the  eastern  seaboard 
of  the  Pacific  was  split  up.  The  difficulties  that  were  likely 
to  be  encountered  were  realised  only  too  well.  Though  great 
engineering  achievements  were  not  to  be  permitted  from  lack 
of  funds,  it  was  recognised  that  in  certain  places  heavy 
initial  expenditure  could  not  be  avoided.  The  rivers  which 
flow  northwards  to  the  Arctic  sea,  and  thus  cut  across 
the  direction  of  the  railway  at  right  angles,  were  to  be 
feared  the  most,  owing  to  their  great  widths,  velocity,  and 
the  ice-packs  with  which  they  were  obstructed  during  the 
early  spring.  Here  metal  only  could  be  employed,  and 
as  the  waterways  to  be  crossed  were  numerous,  it  was 
seen  that  the  expenditure  under  this  heading  would  have 
to  be  enormous.  There  was  another  factor  which  had  to 
be  taken  into  consideration.  These  waterways  during  the 
summer  season  are  the  great  highroads  of  communication 
through  the  country,  and  consequently  it  was  imperative 
that  the  rails  should  be  carried  at  a  sufficient  height  above 
the  waterways  as  to  offer  no  obstruction  to  steamboat 
navigation. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  may  be  conceded  that  the  huge 
bridges  across  such  rivers  as  the  Irtych,  Obi  and  Yenisei 
constitute  the  outstanding  features  of  the  work.  They 
were  built  massively,  and  although  their  erection  in  many 
cases  taxed  the  skill  of  the  engineers  to  a  superlative 
degree,  owing  to  the  difficult  conditions  prevailing,  their 
successful  completion  is  a  striking  tribute  to  the  men 
responsible  for  their  consummation.  The  fact  that  these 
waterways  were  frozen  during  the  winter,  harassed  the 


202    RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

engineers  in  one,  while  it  was  a  distinct  boon  in  another, 
direction.  Rails  could  be  laid  upon  the  ice,  over  which 
the  construction  trains  could  proceed  from  bank  to  bank, 
hauling  the  requisite  supplies  and  provisions  for  the  work- 
men, whereas  in  the  summer  such  work  had  to  be  effected 
by  ferries  and  boats  demanding  transhipment  at  the 
banks,  whereby  considerable  time  was  lost,  as  well  as 
incurring  the  liability  of  damage  to  the  material  handled. 

Work  was  commenced  on  the  various  sections  as  soon  as 
it  was  possible  to  gather  the  requisite  material  and  men 
on  the  spot.  Owing  to  the  extreme  difficulty  attending 
access  to  the  middle  parts  of  the  country,  these  sections 
were  not  taken  in  hand  until  some  two  or  three  years  after 
the  earth  and  rock  had  commenced  to  fly  at  the  extreme 
ends.  As  already  mentioned,  construction  actually  com- 
menced first  at  Vladivostok,  but  some  months  later,  on 
July  7,  1892,  the  engineers  commenced  to  drive  the  steel 
highway  eastwards  from  the  European  terminus  at  Tchelia- 
binsk,  to  which  point  the  line  had  been  carried  forward 
from  Zlatoost. 

The  country  entered  after  the  Urals  were  left  behind 
was  the  fringe  of  a  vast  steppe  covered  with  tall  bush, 
which  continues  until  the  Obi  is  gained.  Then  the  char- 
acter of  the  country  changes  with  startling  suddenness, 
desert  giving  way  to  dense  forests,  where  heavy  clearing 
was  necessary  to  secure  the  right-of-way.  The  timber, 
however,  was  of  slight  use  for  building  purposes,  and  this 
deficiency,  together  with  that  of  stone,  proved  a  serious 
drawback.  Timber  had  to  be  hauled  from  long  distances 
and  pressed  into  service  for  spanning  the  smaller  water- 
ways, creeks  and  streams,  there  being  over  260  temporary 
structures  of  this  type  upon  this  division.  Difficulty  was 
also  experienced  in  securing  material  for  ballasting  the 
line,  and  in  some  instances  it  was  necessary  to  haul  the 
material  for  this  purpose  20  miles  across  country. 

Four  large  steel  bridges  had  to  be  erected  in  order  to 
carry  the  railway  across  the  Tobol,  Ichime,  Irtych  and 
Obi  rivers,  all  of  which  are  navigable.  The  last  two 


ACROSS   SIBERIA   BY   RAIL  203 

waterways  demanded  the  heaviest  pieces  of  work  of  this 
character,  the  Irtych  bridge  being  about  2,130  feet  in 
length,  divided  into  six  spans,  each  of  about  354^  feet. 
That  over  the  Obi  measures  some  2,650  feet  from  end  to 
end,  built  up  of  seven  spans,  three  of  which  are  of  594^ 
feet,  and  four  of  29 ij  feet  respectively. 

The  rigours  of  the  climate  were  felt  severely.  The 
summer  is  short  and  hot,  while  the  winter  is  long  and 
intensely  cold,  the  temperature  ranging  between  -5  and 
-13  degrees,  while  at  times  the  mercury  was  found  to 
descend  to  -40  degrees.  Moreover,  the  steppe  is  swept 
by  terrific  winds,  and  the  conditions  told  heavily  upon 
the  labourers  working  in  such  an  exposed  situation.  In 
summer,  after  making  allowances  for  wet  and  fete  days, 
only  about  120  days  were  left  for  operations,  and  con- 
sequently it  was  essential  to  continue  work  during  the 
winter  as  far  as  practicable.  The  sparsely-populated 
character  of  the  country  militated  against  the  engineers, 
and  the  labour  for  the  most  part  had  to  be  brought  from 
Europe,  for  the  peasants  were  unaccustomed  to  navvy 
work.  The  scarcity  of  water  was  another  adverse  factor, 
that  found  in  the  more  sterile  reaches  being  brackish  and 
unfit  for  consumption.  To  meet  this  contingency  water 
had  to  be  brought  over  long  distances  for  the  workmen, 
while  in  places  artesian  wells  were  sunk  which  relieved 
the  situation  slightly.  Under  these  conditions  the  com- 
pletion of  the  885  miles  of  line  comprised  in  this  section 
within  four  years  was  an  excellent  piece  of  work. 

The  Central  Siberian  railway,  as  it  ran  through  two 
diametrically  different  stretches  of  country — plain  and 
mountainous  respectively — was  subdivided  into  two 
divisions.  The  first  section,  stretching  from  the  banks  of 
the  Obi,  where  it  connected  with  the  Western  Siberian 
railway,  was  taken  in  hand  in  May  1893,  and  the  work 
was  pushed  forward  so  vigorously  that  it  was  completed 
in  advance  of  the  scheduled  time.  Trains  from  St.  Peters- 
burg could  not  run  over  this  section,  howrever,  until  two 
years  later,  as  the  struggles  of  the  engineers  upon  the 


204    RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

mountains,  in  the  second  moiety,  demanded  the  utilisation 
of  the  first  section  for  the  handling  of  their  supplies  and 
material.  The  broken  country  proved  to  be  exceedingly 
troublesome.  Moreover,  a  large  number  of  wide  water- 
ways had  to  be  crossed,  such  as  the  Yenisei,  where  a 
magnificent  bridge  2,856  feet  in  length  had  to  be  erected. 
It  is  a  massive  structure,  and  at  present  constitutes  the 
largest  and  heaviest  work  of  its  description  in  Siberia. 

Th'e  traveller  as  he  rolls  over  the  iron  road  cannot  resist 
contrasting  the  solidity  and  permanent  appearance  of  these 
noble  bridges  with  the  temporary  character  of  the  line  in 
other  places.  The  difference  is  so  great  as  to  be  incon- 
gruous. Yet  it  was  in  accordance  with  the  original  plans. 
The  earthworks  and  permanent  way  can  be  replaced  at 
leisure,  but  the  bridges,  and  the  reputation  of  the  rivers 
they  span,  led  the  authorities  to  decide  that  in  these 
instances  first  cost  should  be  last  cost.  When  the  whole 
railway  is  brought  up  to  the  standard  of  the  bridgework, 
it  will  be  comparable  in  solidity,  and  travelling  comfort 
with  the  leading  lines  of  other  countries. 

Rapidity  in  laying  the  track  on  the  first  section  was  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  line  traversed  an  undulating  plain 
where  heavy  works  were  not  demanded.  The  climate  for 
the  most  part  was  found  to  be  analogous  with  that  pre- 
vailing in  Western  Siberia,  the  mean  temperature  in 
summer  hovering  about  70  degrees,  to  fall  to  about  -7.6 
degrees  in  winter.  In  order  that  the  workmen  during  the 
latter  season  might  not  be  interrupted  in  their  tasks  of 
fashioning  the  stone-work  for  the  bridges,  special  work- 
shops were  provided,  heated  with  steam  and  stoves,  and 
similar  shelters  were  built  over  the  sites  of  erection  on 
the  ice,  where  the  workmen  were  enabled  to  lay  the 
masonry  in  comfort.  At  the  same  time  these  measures 
permitted  the  cement  to  dry  slowly  instead  of  being  frozen, 
only  to  fall  to  pieces  with  the  approach  of  spring. 

As  the  engineers  pushed  farther  and  farther  away  from 
the  European  frontier,  the  country  was  found  to  be  more 
and  more  thinly  settled.  Along  the  line  of  the  Central 


ACROSS   SIBERIA   BY   RAIL  ,      205 

Siberian  railway  the  average  population  was  one  person 
per  square  mile,  and  the  majority  of  these  people  were 
colonists  who  had  emigrated  from  European  Russia  to 
practise  agriculture  in  the  East,  and  they  were  settled  for 
the  most  part  along  the  postal  road  to  Tomsk. 

Under  such  conditions  labour  had  to  be  brought  from 
several  hundreds  of  miles  to  the  rear.  Huge  depots  had 
to  be  established  to  house  provisions  and  large  camps 
formed  for  the  employees.  Furthermore,  thousands  of 
horses  and  hundreds  of  wagons  were  required  in  addition 
to  sleighs.  Roads  had  to  be  cut  for  the  passage  of  these 
vehicles,  and  at  various  points  stores  of  provisions  and 
other  necessaries  had  to  be  stored  in  deep  pits  dug  in  the 
ground,  and  covered  with  heavy  tree-trunks  to  secure 
protection  against  bears  and  other  marauders. 

The  penetration  of  the  dark  and  matted  primeval  forests 
was  terrible.  The  ground  was  swampy,  and  in  order  to 
facilitate  the  advance  of  vehicles  the  soft  soil  had  to  be 
rendered  firmer  by  tree-trunks  laid  down  to  form  a  kind 
of  timber  road.  The  men  engaged  in  this  essential  under- 
taking suffered  extreme  privations,  not  only  bodily,  but 
mentally  as  well.  The  terrible  solitude  preyed  upon  their 
minds,  while  the  rainfall  and  entire  absence  of  the  rudi- 
ments of  comfort  told  upon  their  constitutions. 

In  order  to  facilitate  the  transportation  of  the  provisions 
and  material  from  European  Russia  to  the  main  depots 
along  the  line,  the  great  waterways  were  utilised  to  the 
fullest  extent.  Boats  of  all  descriptions  took  on  these 
stores  at  convenient  points  near  the  Urals,  such  as 
Tioumen,  and  by  traversing  the  various  tributaries  of  the 
mighty  Obi  were  able  to  gain  numerous  points  along  the 
location,  where  they  discharged  their  cargoes.  Thence 
the  goods  were  dispatched  to  the  scattered  depots  and 
camps  by  road. 

When  Irkutsk  was  gained,  the  first  serious  troubles 
arising  from  the  mountains  confronted  the  engineers. 
The  survey  showed  that  the  line  here  would  have  to 
describe  a  huge  detour  to  round  the  southern  extremity 


206     RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF    THE   WORLD 

of  Lake  Baikal,  a  sheet  of  water  as  large  as  England. 
The  country  was  broken  up  to  an  extreme  degree,  and 
among  other  works  of  a  heavy  nature  involved  was  a 
tunnel  nearly  12,500  feet  long  through  the  Zyrkousounsk 
mountain  chain,  which  towers  to  a  height  of  12,000  feet 
above  sea-level.  But  the  tunnel  was  only  one  obstacle 
which  would  have  to  be  overcome,  for  heavy  cuttings 
through  rock  and  big  fills  to  cross  depressions  were  in- 
dicated on  all  sides.  Some  idea  of  the  outlook  was  afforded 
from  the  estimated  cost  of  this  182  miles  of  line  which 
was  ciphered  at  ,£2,700,000,  or  $13,500,000.  As,  after 
compassing  the  lake,  the  line  swung  sharply  north-east- 
wards to  gain  Myssovaia,  practically  opposite  the  point  on 
the  wrest  bank,  a  bold  temporary  expedient  was  sug- 
gested. This  was  the  installation  of  a  large  vessel  com- 
bining the  features  of  an  ice-breaker  and  ferry,  which 
should  carry  the  trains  intact  across  the  lake,  a  distance 
of  about  45  miles.  By  this  means  construction  from  the 
eastern  bank  could  be  hastened,  leaving  the  line  around 
the  end  of  the  sheet  of  water  to  be  built  at  leisure  at  a 
subsequent  date. 

The  construction  of  this  vessel  was  entrusted  to  Sir 
W.  G.  Armstrong,  Whitworth  &  Co.,  Limited,  who  had 
undertaken  the  ice-breaker  Ermak  which  had  proved  such 
a  unique  success  in  the  Baltic  Sea.  It  measures  280  feet 
in  length  and  has  a  displacement  of  4,200  tons.  It  is 
propelled  by  twin  screws  driven  by  triple  expansion 
engines  developing  3,750  horse-power.  A  third  screw 
is  placed  in  the  front,  which  not  only  serves  to  assist  pro- 
pulsion, but  also  to  crush  the  ice,  the  vessel,  as  it  were, 
cutting  its  own  channel. 

Rails  are  laid  upon  the  deck  of  this  steamer  so  that  the 
train,  when  it  comes  to  the  water's  edge  on  one  bank, 
proceeds  under  its  own  power  on  to  the  steamer,  and  upon 
reaching  the  opposite  bank  of  the  lake  runs  on  to  dry 
land.  In  addition,  there  is  accommodation  for  a  large 
number  of  passengers. 

The  vessel  was  built  on  the  Tyne  and  then  dismantled, 


ACROSS   SIBERIA   BY   RAIL  207 

every  part  being  numbered  to  show  its  relative  position. 
It  was  shipped  to  St.  Petersburg,  and  from  that  point 
dispatched  to  Krasnoiarsk.  Here  on  the  shores  of  Lake 
Baikal  the  parts  were  reassembled  and  the  vessel  was 
launched.  This  ship-building  operation  was  no  mean  feat 
in  itself,  bearing  in  mind  the  remote  situation  of  the  lake 
and  the  complete  absence  of  those  thousand-and-one 
facilities  which  are  to  be  found  in  a  shipyard  on  the 
Tyne. 

The  vessel  proved  a  complete  success,  and  the  author- 
ities were  so  gratified  at  this  solution  of  a  difficult  problem 
that  they  secured  a  second  ice-breaker,  together  with  a 
floating  dock  where  these  craft  could  be  repaired  and  over- 
hauled as  occasion  demanded,  together  with  sufficient 
equipment  for  such  work.  The  total  expenditure  upon 
this  trans-Baikal  marine  work  alone  amounted  to 
^684,190,  or  $3,420,950. 

The  line  around  the  shore  of  the  lake,  however,  has 
been  completed,  providing  through  continuous  railway 
communication  across  Siberia.  Passengers  can  still  enjoy 
the  lake  trip  if  they  desire  or  are  in  a  hurry,  as  the 
steamers  are  still  in  service,  not  only  for  this  special 
purpose,  but  also  to  serve  various  other  points  along  the 
shores  of  Lake  Baikal,  thereby  bringing  a  great  territory 
within  easy  reach  of  the  railway. 

The  forging  of  the  link  around  the  lake,  however,  proved 
the  most  difficult  part  of  the  whole  undertaking.  Bridges 
across  yawning  deep  gulches  had  to  be  introduced  freely 
and  projecting  spurs  had  to  be  tunnelled.  Heavy  gradients 
and  sharp  curves  could  not  be  avoided  owing  to  the  con- 
figuration of  the  country,  and  at  many  places  the  work 
is  extremely  daring.  Despite  the  difficulties  with  which 
the  engineer  had  to  grapple,  this  trying  section  was  com- 
pleted two  years  before  the  anticipated  date,  a  result  in 
the  main  due  to  the  energy  and  initiative  of  one  man — 
Prince  Khilkoff. 

This  scion  of  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  noble  families 
in  Russia  was  an  extraordinary  man,  and  probably  the 


io8    RAILWAY   CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

most  famous  railway  engineer  that  Russia  has  produced. 
His  career  was  as  extraordinary  as  his  character.  When 
a  young  man  he  determined  to  see  things  for  himself. 
For  several  months  he  worked  at  a  bench  in  Liverpool 
in  order  to  become  familiar  with  the  trade  of  a  mechanic. 
Then  when  one  of  the  early  trans-continental  railways 
was  being  driven  across  the  United  States,  he  proceeded 
to  that  country  and  joined  the  navvying  gangs  at  the 
railhead,  becoming  acquainted  in  turn  with  the  difficulties 
of  penetrating  the  mountains,  railway-building  and  a  thou- 
sand-and-one  other  details  pertaining  to  such  operations 
in  a  new  country  of  a  diversified  character.  In  this  way 
he  gained  valuable  first-hand  knowledge  from  practical 
experience.  Afterwards  he  turned  his  attention  to  the 
operating  side,  serving  first  as  stoker  and  then  as  driver. 
Still  climbing  the  ladder,  he  became  traction  manager  and 
was  responsible  for  the  running  of  the  line.  Few  men 
ever  have  gained  such  an  all-round  knowledge  of  the 
intricate  art  of  controlling  a  railway  as  did  Prince  Michael 
Ivanovitch  Khilkoff,  and  one  of  his  most  treasured  pos- 
sessions was  an  old  certificate  of  character  that  was  given 
to  him  by  his  superior  when  he  severed  his  connection 
with  an  American  railway,  in  order  to  facilitate  his  securing 
another  post. 

The  knowledge  he  thus  acquired  stood  him  in  valuable 
stead  when  he  returned  to  Russia,  where  the  development 
of  various  means  of  communication  throughout  the  empire 
was  in  a  state  of  transition.  On  account  of  his  wide  and 
varied  experience  he  was  appointed  to  the  directorship 
and  control  of  various  railways,  and  soon  brought  them 
to  a  high  state  of  efficiency.  He  achieved  the  topmost 
rung  of  the  ladder  when  he  was  appointed  minister  of  all 
the  roads,  canals,  rivers  and  railways  of  the  empire. 

The  Trans-Siberian  road  thus  came  under  his  control, 
and  he  set  to  work  energetically  upon  the  completion  of 
this  tremendous  enterprise.  His  influence  was  demon- 
strated on  every  hand.  Lackadaisical  methods  made  way 
for  strict  business  routine,  and  in  a  short  time  the  whole 


ACROSS   SIBERIA   BY   RAIL  209 

organisation  was  running  with  the  precision  of  a  clock. 
His  subordinates  when  in  a  quandary  never  hesitated  from 
seeking  his  advice  and  assistance,  which  were  granted 
always  with  sympathetic  interest;  and  when  the  obstacle 
assumed  more  than  normal  proportions  he  did  not  attempt 
its  negotiation  from  an  arm-chair  thousands  of  miles  away, 
but  hurried  to  the  spot  to  study  it  at  first-hand,  and  to 
recommend  and  assist  himself  in  the  breaking  down  of 
the  difficulty.  He  had  become  so  saturated  with  American 
railway  methods  that  he  travelled  up  and  down  the  line 
continuously;  no  detail,  no  matter  how  slight,  missed  his 
eye.  At  the  time  the  Circum-Baikal  line  was  in  progress 
he  scarcely  ever  left  the  railhead,  as  it  was  just  one  of 
those  complex  and  exasperating  fights  with  Nature  in 
which  he  revelled.  At  seventy-five  he  was  as  active  and 
as  keen  as  ever,  and  it  was  a  distinct  misfortune  for  Russia 
that  he  was  struck  down  by  a  paralytic  stroke  from  which 
he  never  recovered.  Still,  he  left  a  host  of  recommenda- 
tions for  the  improvement  of  the  Trans-Siberian  and  other 
railways,  including  the  double  tracking  of  the  great  trans- 
continental steel  way,  which  are  now  being  fulfilled. 

'When  Lake  Baikal  was  crossed,  the  engineers  experi- 
enced a  grim  struggle  for  supremacy  through  every  foot 
of  the  way.  There  is  an  up-hill  pull  from  the  shore  of 
the  lake  over  the  Yablonovoi  range,  where  the  railway 
attains  its  highest  point  on  the  continent,  viz.  3,412  feet 
above  sea-level,  and  then  makes  a  descent  to  gain  the 
valley  of  the  Amur.  The  country  traversed  is  of  a  varied 
character,  and  was  found  to  be  tightly  in  the  grip  of 
frost,  for  the  winter  is  terribly  severe.  The  land,  in  fact, 
may  be  described  as  eternally  frozen,  for  in  summer, 
although  the  temperature  rises  to  about  62  degrees, 
it  does  not  thaw  the  ground  to  a  depth  of  more  than  7 
feet  below  the  surface.  In  the  forested  parts  where  the 
branches  shut  out  the  genial  rays  of  the  sun,  ice  is  found 
at  about  20  inches  below  the  surface  in  midsummer. 

Under  these  circumstances  advance  was  trying.  The 
top-soil  was  as  hard  as  rock,  and  could  not  be  displaced 


210    RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

except  by  dynamite,  so  that  in  the  deep  cuttings  in  mid- 
summer it  was  just  as  arduous  to  cut  a  way  through  the 
frozen  loam  as  through  the  solid  rock.  The  rivers,  although 
they  flow  with  a  fierce  velocity,  freeze  up  quickly,  and  the 
ice  assumes  a  great  depth— a  train  can  cross  on  the 
congealed  surface  with  perfect  safety. 

In  this  country,  strange  to  say,  it  was  found  to  be  easier 
to  work  during  the  winter,  notwithstanding  the  extreme 
cold,  than  during  the  summer,  for  a  higher  rate  of  advance 
could  be  maintained  when  the  country  was  frost-bound. 
There  is  an  almost  total  absence  of  snow,  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  during  the  summer  the  rainfall  is  tremendous.  The 
wet  season  lasts  continuously  for  nearly  two  months — from 
the  middle  of  June  to  the  middle  of  August.  The  down- 
pour is  so  terrific  that  floods  are  precipitated  on  every  hand, 
and  the  resultant  situation,  as  may  be  surmised,  is  of  the 
most  miserable  character.  In  1897  the  effect  of  this  deluge 
was  experienced  to  an  abnormal  degree,  for  several  villages 
were  overwhelmed,  and  widespread  misery  was  inflicted 
among  the  peasants.  The  railway  did  not  escape,  for  large 
stretches  of  line  were  washed  away  and  large  quantities  of 
material  were  lost. 

The  scarcity  of  labour  was  felt  very  severely.  Sufficient 
men  could  not  be  recruited  locally,  and  to  import  navvies 
from  Europe  was  hopeless.  To  meet  this  contingency  the 
Administration  authorities  sanctioned  the  employment  of 
exiles,  while  criminals  were  requisitioned  to  build  the  grade 
under  a  military  guard.  Though  recourse  to  prison  labour 
has  been  often  advocated  for  railway  construction,  this  is 
one  of  the  rare  instances  where  it  has  been  brought  into 
actual  application  through  absolute  force  of  circumstances. 
Assistance  was  rendered  by  Chinese  labourers,  and  though 
at  first  they  proved  indifferent  in  the  manipulation  of  tools, 
their  assistance  ultimately  proved  invaluable,  as  the 
majority  developed  into  expert  workmen. 

As  in  other  parts  of  the  country,  the  inhabitants  were 
favoured  so  far  as  possible  in  regard  to  the  acquisition  of 
horses,  which  were  necessary  for  teaming  and  haulage 


ACROSS   SIBERIA   BY   RAIL  211 

work  generally,  in  a  district  where  steam  traction  engines 
were  quite  out  of  the  question.  The  camps  were  provided 
also,  so  far  as  practicable,  with  local  produce.  In  this 
territory,  however,  a  serious  situation  was  precipitated. 
The  harvest  failed,  and  the  peasants  were  faced  with  starva- 
tion. Then  the  dreaded  disease  known  locally  as  "Siberia  " 
ravaged  the  country.  It  is  a  plague  analogous  to  the 
rinderpest  of  South  Africa,  and  has  wrought  tremendous 
havoc  throughout  the  eastern  corner  of  the  Russian  Empire, 
its  effects  being  experienced  along  the  shores  of  the  Pacific. 
In  1898,  this  calamity  assumed  such  proportions  that  work 
had  to  be  brought  to  a  standstill  for  lack  of  transportation 
facilities.  The  Government  attempted  to  alleviate  the 
situation  by  organising  a  special  veterinary  service  to  study 
the  plague  on  the  spot,  with  a  view  to  elaborating  some 
palliative  measures.  In  order  to  meet  the  local  deficiency 
the  engineers  were  compelled  to  dispatch  emissaries  into 
Mongolia  to  purchase  the  hardy  beasts  of  burden  peculiar 
to  that  country.  Large  herds  were  acquired  in  this  manner 
and  were  driven  several  hundred  miles  to  the  grade. 

By  means  of  this  section  the  railway  was  carried  so  far 
east  as  Stretensk,  from  which  point  the  line  was  to  be  con- 
tinued to  Khabarovsk.  A  modification  in  the  arrange- 
ments, however,  took  place.  Under  the  original  scheme 
the  line  was  to  traverse  Russian  territory  entirely,  although 
Manchuria  thrust  its  border  so  far  to  the  north  as  to  demand 
a  wide  detour  in  order  to  gain  Vladivostok.  At  last,  how- 
ever, it  became  possible  to  carry  the  railway  into  Man- 
churia, and  as  a  link  was  being  built  across  this  country, 
affording  a  short-cut  to  the  seaboard,  the  Amur  railway 
was  abandoned,  a  short  length  being  built  to  the  Chinese 
frontier  to  connect  with  the  Eastern  Chinese  railways 
instead. 

The  result  is  that  the  extreme  eastern  end  of  the  line 
comes  to  a  dead-end  at  Khabarovsk,  and  in  itself  is  far  from 
being  remunerative.  At  the  time  the  engineers  appeared 
on  the  scene  the  territory  had  not  been  explored,  signs  of 
settlement  were  very  few  and  far  between,  there  were  no 
p  2 


212    RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

roads,  and  the  population  was  composed  mostly  of  exiles 
and  prisoners  deported  from  Europe.  Construction  had  to 
be  carried  out  almost  exclusively  by  convicts,  assisted  by 
the  military,  Chinese  and  Corean  labour.  The  climate 
being  extremely  humid  in  summer,  the  work  during  that 
period  proved  terribly  exacting,  and  the  difficulties  were 
enhanced  by  the  ravages  of  the  cattle  plague.  All  material, 
being  manufactured  in  European  Russia,  had  to  be  brought 
to  the  extreme  eastern  end  by  water,  either  via  the  Suez 
Canal  or  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  consequently  delays 
were  frequent  and  often  serious  for  both  grade  and 
men. 

The  primeval  forest  was  terrible  to  penetrate  owing  to  the 
huge  trees,  which,  although  they  provided  ample  material 
for  constructional  purposes,  demanded  considerable  effort 
and  time  for  their  removal  from  the  right-of-way.  As  the 
conquest  of  Manchuria  commenced  while  this  work  was  in 
progress,  and  a  shorter  cut  to  Vladivostok  was  being  pro- 
vided, a  spur  was  driven  westwards  from  Nikolsk  to  the 
Chinese  frontier  to  meet  the  Manchurian  railway. 

Owing  to  the  rearrangement  of  the  railway  chess-board 
in  the  East  in  consequence  of  the  Russo-Japanese  war,  it 
is  quite  possible  that  the  Trans-Siberian  railway  will  be 
completed  as  originally  planned — that  is,  through  Russian 
territory  entirely,  by  the  completion  of  the  Amur  railway 
from  Stretensk  to  Khabarovsk. 

The  total  cost  of  the  through  main  line  as  now  in  opera- 
tion was  approximately  ,£33,000,000,  or  $165,000,000. 
When  the  various  other  works  incidental  to  the  scheme, 
such  as  the  connections  with  the  Chinese  frontier,  are 
included,  the  total  approaches  the  enormous  figure  of 
^40,000,000,  or  $200,000,000.  This  merely  represents  the 
building  of  the  track  itself  between  Kotlass  in  European 
Russia — now  considered  a  part  of  the  scheme — and  Vladi- 
vostok, without  a  single  railway  car,  wagon  or  engine.  As 
originally  designed,  the  capacity  of  the  line  was  fixed  at 
three  trains  each  way  per  day,  but  the  lightness  of  the  con- 
struction did  not  permit  this  being  maintained  when  the 


ACROSS   SIBERIA   BY   RAIL 


213 


railway  was  subjected  to  great  pressure,  such  as  attended 
the  transport  of  troops  to  the  East. 

The  overhaul  of  the  line  was  commenced  immediately, 
and  the  question  of  doubling  the  track  taken  into  serious 
consideration.  This  latter  work  is  now  in  progress,  and  it 
is  estimated  that  this  task  alone  will  represent  a  prodigious 
expenditure. 

The  effect  of  the  railway  upon  the  movement  of  traffic 
around  the  northern  hemisphere  became  manifested  imme- 
diately. There  were  two  ways  in  which  China  and  the 
East  generally  could  be  gained  from  Europe.  One  route 
was  by  steamer  all  the  way  via  the  Suez  Canal,  the  second 
was  by  way  of  the  Atlantic,  across  America  by  rail,  and  by 
steamship  across  the  Pacific.  But  the  Trans-Siberian  route 
was  far  and  away  the  shortest  and  quickest,  and  as  the 
campaign  of  overhaul  is  proceeding,  acceleration  is  taking 
place.  Now  it  is  possible  to  reach  Shanghai  from  London 
within  1 6  days,  and  one  can  encircle  the  northern  half  of 
the  world  in  less  than  40  days. 

The  extreme  precautions  observed  to  preserve  communi- 
cation on  the  line  are  noteworthy.  The  whole  railway  is 
divided  into  sections,  each  measuring  1,174  yards  in  length. 
Each  station  is  provided  with  a  cottage  housing  the  station- 
master,  his  family  and  the  employees.  Some  4000  of  these 
officials  are  scattered  along  the  route  between  the  Ural 
Mountains  and  the  city  of  Tomsk.  The  men  have  a 
common  uniform,  which  is  rather  of  a  military  appearance, 
and  it  is  no  uncommon  experience  to  hear  passengers 
unfamiliar  with  this  feature  remark  that  the  line  is  guarded 
from  end  to  end  by  soldiers.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  just 
the  same  as  if  the  various  employees  of  our  railways,  such 
as  porters,  signalmen,  guards,  ticket-collectors,  and  so 
forth,  were  attired  in  khaki. 


CHAPTER    XVII 

THE   LEOPOLDINA  RAILWAY 

SOUTH  AMERICA  has  constituted  a  happy  hunting-ground 
for  the  railway  engineer  determined  to  carry  out  his  con- 
quest with  steam  and  steel  in  the  face  of  all  opposition  on 
the  part  of  Nature.  The  famous  Oroya  line  is  described 
in  another  part  of  this  volume,  but  on  the  eastern  side  of 
the  continent  is  another  railway  which  is  equally  as  remark- 
able, and  which  constitutes  one  of  the  most  interesting 
engineering  achievements  in  this  particular  field  of  en- 
deavour south  of  the  Equator.  Indeed,  in  many  respects 
it  ranks  as  one  of  the  most  interesting  lines  in  the  world. 

This  is  the  Leopoldina  railway,  which,  with  its  hub  rest- 
ing on  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  has  its  tentacles  spreading 
through  the  provinces  of  Rio,  Minaes  and  Espirito  Santo 
to  the  extent  of  some  1,500  or  more  miles.  In  reality  it  is 
a  combination  of  many  units.  In  the  'sixties  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  Brazil  resolved  to  criss-cross  its  territory 
with  steel,  and  short  lengths  of  line  were  laid  on  all  sides. 
But  the  finances  of  the  country  became  so  strained  from 
internal  troubles  and  the  decline  in  the  price  of  coffee  that 
money  could  not  be  spared  to  build  or  to  operate  railways 
successfully.  An  English  company  was  organised,  there- 
fore, to  take  over  a  number  of  these  individual  roads,  and 
they  were  combined  into  a  homogeneous  whole  to  form 
the  Leopoldina  system. 

When  the  Englishmen  entered  into  possession  they 
found  a  sorry  state  of  things.  The  finances  were  in  a 
hopelessly  involved  tangle,  and  months  elapsed  before  they 
were  straightened  out.  The  tracks  likewise  were  in  a  piti- 
able condition  of  decay.  They  had  been  built  cheaply,  and 
had  suffered  severely  from  the  innumerable  enemies  to  rail- 

214 


THE   LEOPOLDINA   RAILWAY  215 

ways  in  a  tropical  country.  Lack  of  funds  had  militated 
against  repairs  being  carried  out  upon  a  comprehensive  or 
thorough  scale,  with  the  result  that  the  whole  system  pre- 
sented a  patched  and  dilapidated  appearance. 

However,  no  time  was  lost  in  placing  the  undertaking 
upon  a  firm  footing.  Within  two  months  of  the  acquisi- 
tion of  the  railways  a  large  staff  of  men  for  both  the 
administration  and  engineering  sides  of  the  enterprise  were 
dispatched  to  South  America,  with  Mr.  F.  W.  Barrow  as 
general  manager  and  Mr.  Norman  B.  Dickson,  M.INST.C.E., 
as  engineer-in-chief .  The  engineer  was  commanded  to  over- 
haul the  whole  network,  to  reconstruct  it  if  necessary,  so 
that  the  lines  might  be  capable  of  meeting  the  exigencies 
of  the  traffic  awaiting  creation  from  the  development  of  the 
country. 

At  that  time  Rio  de  Janeiro  was  an  insalubrious  city — in 
fact,  it  was  almost  a  graveyard  for  Englishmen.  Mr. 
Dickson  found  this  out  in  a  very  short  space  of  time.  The 
company  lost  three  accountants  and  a  number  of  British 
assistants  under  the  malignant  scourge  that  prevailed — 
yellow  fever.  Since  those  days  Rio  de  Janeiro  has  made 
great  strides  and  has  undergone  extensive  improvement. 
The  city  has  been  rebuilt,  and  has  been  provided  with  a 
complete  sanitation  system,  to  bring  it  into  line  with  the 
other  great  ports  of  the  world.  But  in  those  days  it  was 
absolutely  untenantable  from  the  white  man's  point  of  view, 
and  the  railway  authorities  were  compelled  to  provide 
accommodation  for  their  imported  staff  in  a  healthy  spot 
outside  the  city,  where  the  men  underwent  what  might  be 
described  as  a  process  of  acclimatisation  lasting  over 
eighteen  months. 

The  first  few  years  were  strenuous  to  the  engineer-in- 
chief.  He  was  confronted  with  a  formidable  task  on  all 
sides.  The  line  is  of  metre,  or  39.3  inches,  gauge  through^ 
out,  and  had  been  built  in  a  somewhat  flimsy  and  hap- 
hazard manner.  The  majority  of  the  bridges  and  culverts 
had  been  erected  of  timber,  the  greater  part  of  which  either 
had  reached,  or  were  approaching  closely,  the  span  of  life. 


2i 6    RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

These  had  to  be  replaced  by  permanent  structures  in 
masonry  or  steel.  The  track,  too,  had  to  be  overhauled 
from  end  to  end,  reballasted,  provided  with  new  sleepers 
and  rails,  and  at  frequent  points  where  it  was  in  an  exposed 
position,  and  liable  to  suffer  from  the  peculiar  visitations 
which  wreak  such  widespread  destruction  in  that  country, 
had  to  be  strengthened  and  protected  by  heavy  retaining 
walls  and  revetments  of  masonry. 

Yet  the  Brazilian  engineers  had  attempted  a  daring 
engineering  work  in  the  first  instance.  The  configuration 
of  Brazil  is  somewhat  peculiar.  A  few  miles  from  the 
coast,  and  running  roughly  parallel  with  the  water-line,  is 
a  rugged  range  of  mountains  dividing  the  low-lying  stretch 
of  shore  from  the  fertile  highlands  in  the  interior.  The 
mountain  ridge  is  not  regular,  but  is  badly  broken  up, 
forming,  as  it  were,  a  succession  of  walls  placed  one  behind 
the  other.  In  order  to  gain  the  interior,  and  owing  to  the 
abrupt  nature  of  the  ascent,  the  line  has  to  climb  sharply, 
at  the  same  time  winding  in  and  out  among  the  clumps  of 
mountains  in  a  bewildering  manner.  In  fact,  the  differ- 
ences in  level  are  so  sudden  that  the  track  could  be  lifted 
only  by  means  of  resort  to  the  rack  rail,  and  other  devices 
such  as  are  adopted  in  Switzerland  to  ascend  the  steep 
mountain  slopes. 

For  instance,  after  leaving  the  coast,  the  first  ridge  is  met 
within  30  miles,  and  in  the  course  of  5  miles  the  line  has 
to  rise  some  3000  feet.  This  involved  the  use  of  grades 
varying  from  15  to  18  per  cent.— from  i  in  6J  to  i  in  5|— 
and  when  first  laid  down  the  line  wras  worked  upon  the 
Riggenbach  system. 

It  is  worth  while  to  recall  that  it  was  on  the  low-level  part 
of  this  section  to  Petropolis  that  the  iron  horse  made  its 
first  appearance  in  South  America.  The  short  length  of 
line,  representing  about  13  or  14  miles,  between  Maua 
and  Raiz  da  Serra  was  the  first  stretch  of  railway  to  be 
laid  and  used  on  the  continent  south  of  the  Equator. 

On  another  part  of  the  system — the  line  running  inland 
from  Nictheroy,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  bay  of  Rio  de 


A   STEEP    BANK    SHOWING    THE    CENTRAL    RACK    RAIL 


TRAIN    ON    THE    RACK   SECTION    OF    THE    PETROPOLIS    DIVISION,    SHOWING 
THE   CURIOUS    TYPE   OF    LOCOMOTIVE    ADOPTED 

HOW  THE   LEOPOLDINA   RAILWAY   OVERCOMES   HEAVY   GRADES 


REBUILDING   A   BRIDGE   ON    THE    LEOPOLDINA    RAILWAY 

The  masonry  structure  had  to  be  built  beside  the  original  iron  structure  so  as  not  to  disturb  traffic. 


THE   LEOPOLDINA   RAILWAY  217 

Janeiro — the  Brazilian  engineers  were  compelled  to  over- 
come one  of  the  most  searching  problems  in  railway 
engineering  in  the  world.  After  traversing  forty  miles  of 
the  level  country,  the  mountain  ridge  barred  their  way. 
They  realised  that  it  could  be  surmounted  only  by  some 
exceptional  system,  and  the  local  authorities  seized, a  unique 
opportunity.  The  Mont  Cenis  tunnel,  connecting  Italy  and 
France,  had  been  bored  successfully,  and  this  new  steel 
highway  through  the  heart  of  the  range  displaced  the  con- 
struction railway  operating  on  the  Fell  system  which  had 
been  laid  over  the  crest  of  the  Cenis  range.  The  Brazilian 
engineers  thereupon  approached  the  Swiss  authorities  for 
the  purchase  of  this  abandoned  stretch  of  mountain  line, 
and  their  offer  was  accepted.  Thereupon  the  Mont  Cenis 
"Fell  "  railway  was  torn  up,  transported  to  South  America, 
and  pressed  into  service  to  help  the  Brazilian  engineers 
over  the  obstacle  that  confronted  them. 

The  solution  proved  completely  successful,  and  the 
engines  fulfilled  their  task  upon  the  eight  per  cent,  grades 
with  perfect  satisfaction  for  several  years.  Then  the  Bald- 
win Company,  of  Philadelphia,  undertook  to  eliminate  the 
special  locomotives  required  on  the  "Fell"  system,  and  to 
convert  the  railway  to  adhesion  working.  Recalling  the 
fact  that  for  every  twelve  and  a  half  feet  of  advance  one 
makes  a  vertical  rise  of  twelve  inches,  such  a  conversion 
appears  remarkably  daring,  but  the  experiment  justified  the 
transformation,  for  the  adhesion  locomotives,  notwithstand- 
ing the  extreme  severity  of  the  gradient  and  the  sharpness 
of  the  curves,  which  have  a  minimum  radius  of  seventy-five 
feet,  have  accomplished  the  work  formerly  completed  by 
the  "Fell"  locomotives  with  equal  success.  The  result  is 
that  this  represents  the  steepest  length  of  line  upon  a  trunk 
railway  to  be  worked  by  adhesion  traction  in  the  world. 

The  locomotives  weigh  forty  tons,  and  they  are  capable 
of  hauling  a  train  weighing  forty-five  tons  on  the  draw- 
bar up  this  bank.  In  comparison  with  such  climbs  the 
"Big  Hill"  which  worried  the  Canadian  Pacific  railway 
engineers  for  so  many  years,  appears  insignificant.  The 


2i8    RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

disadvantage  of  the  grade  on  the  latter  system  was  the 
frequency  with  which  trains  ran  away  down  the  declivity 
to  enter  one  or  other  of  the  switches  or  catch-points,  which 
deflected  the  train  or  locomotive  from  the  main  track  and 
piled  it  against  a  bank  of  earth.  Such  accidents  on  the 
"Big  Hill"  were  nothing  to  what  have  occurred  on  the 
Leopoldina  line.  The  great  difficulty  is  not  in  regard  to 
ascending  the  grade  with  a  load,  although  there  is  a  pos- 
sibility of  the  engine  failing  to  take  the  hill,  and  to  let  its 
driving  wheels  spin  round  idly  on  the  metals  without 
forging  a  foot  ahead.  The  traffic  destined  for  the  interior 
is  comparatively  light.  The  heaviest  loads  are  brought 
from'  the  highlands  to  the  coast,  and  consequently  the 
question  is  to  hold  the  train  in  check  as  it  descends. 
Ordinary  braking  is  useless,  as,  although  the  wheels  may 
be  locked,  the  whole  train  is  liable  to  toboggan  down  the 
metal  slide  almost  as  furiously  as  if  the  wheels  were  run- 
ning freely.  The  situation  has  been  met  by  firstly  revers- 
ing the  engines  and  letting  a  small  amount  of  steam  into 
the  cylinders  sufficient  to  act  as  a  break,  and  by  retaining 
the  centre  rail  of  the  Fell  system  and  to  grip  it  by  means 
of  a  strong  scissors  brake.  Inasmuch  as  the  engineers  are 
extremely  careful  when  descending  the  hill,  runaways  are 
few  and  far  between. 

Now  and  again,  however,  a  train  gets  out  of  control, 
especially  when  the  rails  are  wet  and  slippery.  To  meet 
this  condition  of  affairs  the  driver,  of  course,  makes  liberal 
use  of  sand,  but  here  again  the  fates  are  against  him,  for 
owing  to  the  sharp  curves  it  is  no  easy  matter  to  induce 
the  sand  falling  from  the  engine's  sand-boxes  to  drop  on 
the  face  of,  and  not  between  or  outside,  the  rails.  When 
a  train  does  get  out  of  hand  on  the  descent  the  driver  has 
to  trust  to  luck  to  gain  the  bottom  of  the  bank  in  safety, 
or  to  regain  control  of  his  charge.  Sometimes  he  succeeds 
and  sometimes  he  fails.  In  the  latter  case  derailment 
generally  ensues,  with  more  or  less  disastrous  results.  Mr. 
Dickson  had  a  narrow  escape  from  this  danger  himself  one 
day.  He  was  carrying  out  his  periodical  inspection  of  the 


A    FLOOD    ON    THE    LINE 

The  track  is  submerged  by  the  torrential  rainfall. 


A    DERAILMENT    CAl'SED    BY    THE    TRAIN    COLLIDING    WITH    A    COW 

CURIOUS   TROUBLES   EXPERIENCED   ON   THE 
LEOPOLDINA   RAILWAY 


AN    INTERESTING    ENGINEERING   ACHIEVEMENT 
This  i6o-feet  bridge  span  had  to  be  erected  and  pulled  into  position  over  rollers. 


BRIDGE   OVER   THE    PARAHYBUNA   RIVER,    SHOWING    HEIGHT    OF    RIVER    IN    FLOOD 
AND   FORCE   OF   WATER   SURGING    ROUND    THE    PIERS 

THE   LEOPOLDINA   RAILWAY   IX    BRAZIL 


THE   LEOPOLDINA   RAILWAY  219 

line  from  his  special  carriage  coupled  to  a  locomotive.  In 
coming  down  the  bank  something  went  wrong,  and  the 
train  got  away.  The  engineer-in-chief  admits  that  he 
had  an  uncomfortably  anxious  few  minutes.  He  felt  the 
train  gather  speed,  and  suffered  violent  oscillation  as  the 
train  swung  round  the  bends.  Just  as  he  was  wondering 
what  would  be  the  end,  there  was  a  jump  and  a  crash. 
The  engine  had  left  the  track,  rolled  over,  and  his  car 
was  astride  the  overturned  locomotive.  He  crawled  out  of 
the  wreck,  badly  shaken  and  bruised,  but  otherwise  little 
the  worse  for  his  adventure,  though  the  unfortunate  driver 
was  killed. 

In  order  to  negotiate  the  third  mountain  range  another 
solution  of  the  difficulty  was  adopted.  The  precipice  was 
so  steep  that  the  engineers  could  not  introduce  the  loops 
requisite  to  carry  the  line  continuously  from  one  level  to 
the  other.  So  they  had  recourse  to  the  switch-back,  wherein 
the  line  runs  down-hill  for  a  short  distance  to  a  dead-end. 
This  brings  the  engine  of  the  descending  train  to  the  rear, 
and  by  giving  the  latter  a  slight  push  it  is  sent  down 
another  similar  switch-back  to  another  dead-end,  where  the 
engine  is  brought  once  more  to  the  front  of  the  train.  In 
this  manner,  alternately  pulling  and  pushing,  the  train 
gains  the  bottom  or  top  of  the  level  of  the  line,  according 
to  the  direction  in  which  it  is  travelling.  In  reality  it  is 
a  zigzag,  similar  in  character  to  that  which  was  used  for 
so  many  years  upon  the  New  South  Wales  railways,  as 
described  elsewhere. 

Although  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  continent  the 
engineer  is  spared  the  ravages  of  snow  and  avalanches, 
he  suffers  from  other  disturbing  elements  which  perhaps 
are  more  to  be  dreaded.  These  are  floods,  wash-outs  and 
landslides.  The  rainfall  in  this  territory  averages  between 
90  and  100  inches  during  the  year,  and  when  the  rain- 
storms break  the  downfall  is  tremendous.  The  rivers  are 
converted  into  roaring  cataracts,  huge  cavities  are  torn  in 
the  flanks  of  the  mountains,  and  enormous  quantities  of 
debris  are  released.  Should  the  line  be  in  the  way  of  such 


220    RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

a  visitation  it  suffers  severely.  It  is  no  uncommon  circum- 
stance for  a  huge  gap  to  be  cut  in  the  railway,  showing 
where  the  tearing  water  or  descending  mass  of  earth  has 
crashed  through  the  track,  sweeping  everything  before  it. 
Nothing  can  withstand  the  force  of  these  onslaughts,  and 
although  heavy  retaining  walls  of  masonry  may  serve  to 
check  their  fury,  they  are  not  completely  successful.  The 
result  is  that  when  the  rains  are  expending  their  violence, 
the  engineer-in-chief  is  prepared  for  some  heavy  repairing 
work,  for  possibly  100,000  tons  or  more  of  earthen 
embankment  may  be  demolished. 

Then  the  engineer  hurriedly  completes  a  new  survey, 
and  replaces  the  track  around  the  scene  of  the  accident, 
because  reconstruction,  as  a  rule,  is  more  economical  and 
quicker  than  attempting  to  repair  the  injury  inflicted. 

This,  at  times,  and  in  a  cramped  valley,  is  no  easy  task, 
for  the  curvature  has  to  be  borne  in  mind.  Consequently 
the  destruction  often  precipitates  a  pretty  engineering 
problem,  extrication  from  which  depends  upon  the 
engineer's  resources  and  ingenious  ability  entirely.  There 
is  no  doubt  that  the  control  of  a  South  American  railway, 
where  such  conditions  as  these  prevail,  imposes  a  supreme 
task  upon  a  man's  capacity.  Wash-outs  and  landslips 
will  find  the  engineer  out  more  quickly  than  any  other 
emergency,  because  he  is  called  upon  to  keep  the  track 
going  at  all  hazards,  and  when  a  breach  does  occur, 
his  own  enterprise  and  initiative  alone  determine  the 
length  of  the  period  of  interruption  to  traffic.  On  such  a 
line  as  the  Leopoldina  railway  this  is  a  serious  factor, 
because  there  is  a  constant  heavy  volume  of  produce, 
especially  coffee,  maize,  tobacco  and  sugar,  pouring 
towards  the  coast.  During  a  recent  year  floods,  wash-outs 
and  landslides  cost  the  railway  no  less  than  ,£24,500,  or 
$122,500.  This  was  a  year  of  abnormal  disaster  in  this 
direction,  but  the  item  generally  approximates  between 
;£  1 2,000  and  ;£  14,000,  or  $60,000  and  $70,000,  in  the  course 
of  the  twelve  months. 

The  replacement  of  the  decrepit  bridges  occasioned  Mr. 


\ 


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fa 
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2  a 

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II 

3  I 


3  ^ 

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§     ^ 


--: 


THE   LEOPOLDINA   RAILWAY  221 

Dickson  no  little  perplexity,  but  this  work  became  all  the 
more  urgent,  as  the  original  structures  could  not  withstand 
the  heavier  locomotives  and  trains  that  were  introduced  by 
the  British  company.  One  of  the  most  difficult  under- 
takings of  this  character  was  the  erection  of  a  massive 
masonry  arch  bridge  in  three  spans  uppn  the  rack  system 
of  the  Petropolis  branch.  Each  span  is  of  50  feet,  and  the 
work  was  complicated  by  being  on  a  curve  of  80  metres, 
or  about  266  feet  radius.  It  had  to  replace  a  trestle  bridge, 
and  reconstruction  had  to  progress  without  interfering  with 
traffic.  Another  notable  piece  of  work  which  he  completed 
successfully  was  the  erection  of  a  single  steel  girder  bridge 
of  160  feet  span  across  the  Parahybuna  River.  Owing  to 
the  velocity  of  the  current  and  the  great  depth  of  water, 
false-work  was  quite  out  of  the  question,  so  the  steel-work 
had  to  be  erected  on  shore,  rolled  out,  and  launched  into 
position,  being  held  in  check  by  cables,  which  proved  a 
trying  ordeal  owing  to  the  current.  When  brought  into 
position  between  the  abutments,  the  steel-work  was  lifted 
by  means  of  jacks,  the  temporary  nose  was  dismantled,  and 
the  span  lowered  until  it  rested  in  the  desired  position  upon 
its  supports. 

Occasionally  the  advance  of  the  railway  has  been  resented 
by  the  inhabitants.  For  instance,  when  it  was  decided  to 
carry  the  railway  across  the  Parahybuna  River  at  Campos, 
the  populace  of  the  latter  town  considered  it  an  unwarranted 
intrusion.  They  were  urged  that  the  railway  bridge  would 
cause  their  trade  on  the  waterway  to  shrink  to  infinitesimal 
proportions.  Thereupon  the  inhabitants  raided  the  rail- 
way, and  zealously  set  to  work  to  destroy  everything 
destined  for  the  bridge.  The  situation  looked  ugly,  but  the 
authorities  took  stern  measures  and  quelled  the  riot,  though 
not  before  damage  to  the  extent  of  ,£40,000,  or  $200,000, 
had  been  wrought. 

This  bridge  is  one  of  the  most  important  upon  the  whole 
system.  From  end  to  end  it  measures  1,113^  feet,  divided 
into  six  through  truss  spans  supported  upon  five  pairs  of 
piers  in  the  waterway. 


222    RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

This  outbreak  of  hostility,  however,  was  quite  excep- 
tional. In  the  interior  the  natives  have  welcomed  the  rail- 
way rather  than  attempted  to  arrest  its  progress.  This 
feeling  has  taken  an  unusual  turn  at  places  where  the 
communities  have  presented  the  land  for  the  right-of-way, 
and  in  other  cases  have  built  stations  at  their  own  expense. 
Since  the  railway  has  been  under  British  control  the  expan- 
sion of  the  country  has  proceeded  rapidly,  and  the  exploita- 
tion of  the  soil  has  proved  highly  profitable.  The  railway 
maintains  an  active  progressive  policy,  throwing  out  spur 
lines  wherever  the  local  conditions  promise  an  equitable 
return,  to  encourage  development.  These  branches  are 
not  built  upon  pioneer  principles,  but  are  equal  in  every 
respect  to  the  trunk  roads. 

The  amount  of  earthwork  incurred  in  the  construction 
is  enormous.  Ninety  per  cent,  of  the  mileage  of  the  line 
is  carried  out  upon  the  sides  of  the  hills,  necessitating  cut- 
tings sufficiently  deep  and  wide  to  carry  the  track.  The 
location  for  the  most  part  is  along  the  banks  of  the  rivers, 
inasmuch  as  these  offer  the  easiest  channels  to  penetrate 
the  mountain  ridges.  As  these  waterways  describe  ex- 
tremely meandering  courses,  the  railway  is  a  maze  of  twists 
and  turns.  In  fact,  the  line  might  be  described,  after  it 
leaves  the  flats  along  the  coast,  as  a  continuous  succession 
of  curves  and  reverse  curves,  more  often  than  not,  without 
an  intervening  stretch  of  tangent,  or  straight,  length  of 
track.  As  a  result  fantastic  "S"  windings,  horse-shoe 
bends,  and  figure-eight  loops  abound,  though  the  minimum 
curve  is  of  266  feet  radius. 

Despite  its  remarkable  serpentine  character,  however, 
the  Brazilian  engineers  displayed  marked  ability  in  the 
original  location,  bearing  in  mind  the  state  of  railway 
engineering  at  the  date  these  lines  were  undertaken.  When 
Mr.  Dickson  appeared  on  the  scene  to  straighten  out  the 
railway,  the  natives  constituted  his  sole  labour,  and  he 
found  that  the  Brazilian  engineers  were  adapted  eminently 
to  the  work  of  surveying  and  locating,  being  possessed  of 
a  specially  good  eye  for  a  railway  line  through  difficult 


THE   LEOPOLDINA   RAILWAY  223 

country.  The  labour,  too,  in  general,  was  found  to  be  of 
a  high  standard.  The  Chinaman  is  generally  regarded  as 
the  best  navvy,  but  according  to  this  engineer  who  has 
had  experience  in  railway  construction  in  all  parts  of  the 
world,  his  preference  is  overwhelmingly  in  favour  of  the 
Brazilian  Portugee.  He  takes  a  pride  in  his  work,  is  con- 
scientious, and  performs  his  task  thoroughly.  These  traits 
stood  the  engineer-in-chief  in  good  stead  in  his  work  of 
overhaul,  for  it  enabled  him  to  produce  a  line  which,  from 
the  point  of  excellence  and  solidity,  would  be  difficult  to 
rival  in  more  advanced  countries.  In  the  upkeep  of  the 
line  the  same  characteristics  are  observable.  The  men  are 
tidy,  keep  the  track  in  excellent  condition,  and  leave  little 
cause  for  complaint  in  regard  to  the  maintenance  of  the 
railway  buildings,  taking  pride  in  their  individual  sections. 
They  have  proved  first-class  engine-drivers,  displaying 
every  care,  for  on  a  railway  of  this  character,  bristling 
with  sharp  curves  and  steep  banks,  accidents  are  liable  to 
be  caused  from  the  slightest  miscalculation.  When  dis- 
asters have  occurred,  it  has  been  found  that  the  causes 
have  been  quite  beyond  the  men's  control. 

Under  British  management  the  railway  has  been  rescued 
completely  from  its  former  moribund  condition,  greater 
stretches  of  fertile  country  have  been  brought  under  cultiva- 
tion, and  a  general  air  of  prosperity  has  been  imparted  to 
the  territory  which  it  serves.  From  the  financial  point  of 
view  the  investment  has  proved  a  complete  success,  with 
the  result  that  the  Leopoldina  railway  to-day  offers  a  most 
powerful  example  of  the  beneficial  influences  of  English 
management  among  the  railways  of  South  America. 


CHAPTER   XVIII 

THE   FIRST  CANADIAN   TRANS-CONTINENTAL   RAILWAY 

As  the  railway  expansion  of  Canada  developed  by  leaps 
and  bounds,  ambitious  spirits  contemplated  larger  and 
larger  conquests,  culminating  in  a  desire  to  build  a  link 
of  steel  right  across  the  country  from  coast  to  coast.  This 
feeling  was  natural.  On  the  Atlantic  sea-board,  settlement 
advanced  at  a  rapid  rate  in  the  Lower  Provinces  and 
forced  its  way  steadily  inland.  On  the  Pacific  side,  civil- 
isation firmly  planted  in  British  Columbia  spread  towards 
the  Rocky  Mountains.  These  two  colonising  forces,  work- 
ing in  the  same  country,  were  as  wide  apart  as  if  at  the 
Poles,  for  the  intervening  plains  stretching  from  the  Great 
Lakes  to  the  Rockies  were  considered  useless. 

British  Columbia  felt  this  isolation  keenly.  All  traffic 
had  to  be  carried  round  the  southern  extremity  of  the 
American  continent.  To  travel  from  London  to  Van- 
couver in  the  'fifties  was  an  heroic  undertaking,  involving 
a  journey  more  than  half-way  round  the  globe.  Some  of 
the  trade,  however,  was  maintained  overland.  For  in- 
stance, the  provisions  for  the  Hudson's  Bay  post  at 
Vancouver  were  dispatched  from  Montreal  over  a  trail 
some  3000  miles  in  length.  But  it  was  a  tremendous  task, 
occupying  several  weeks.  The  pack  train  left  Montreal  in 
May,  and  the  water  route  was  followed  so  far  as  practic- 
able to  Fort  Garry,  where  Winnipeg  now  stands.  Here 
the  rivers  were  abandoned  in  favour  of  horses,  mules 
and  wagons  which  trekked  slowly  across  the  prairies — 
the  voyageurs  living  on  the  buffalo  which  roamed  the 
plains  in  their  thousands — threaded  the  terrible  mountain 
rifts,  and  dropped  down  to  the  coast,  reaching  Vancouver 
about  the  end  of  September.  The  trail  was  ill-defined  and 
the  journey  bristled  with  exciting  incidents  and  adventures. 

224 


FIRST   CANADIAN   TRANS-CONTINENTAL     225 

The  disadvantages  of  this  means  of  communication 
between  the  opposite  sides  of  the  continent  were  realised 
only  too  fully,  so  when  the  railway  had  become  established 
in  Eastern  Canada  and  had  demonstrated  its  tremendous 
possibilities,  an  iron  link  across  the  Dominion  was 
advocated  strenuously.  But  the  vastness  of  the  under- 
taking was  deemed  to  be  beyond  the  possibilities  of  the 
country;  the  cost  was  contemplated  to  be  so  huge  that 
capitalists  would  not  venture  to  commit  themselves  to  the 
fulfilment  of  such  a  project.  One  of  the  advocates  of  the 
enterprise  suggested  that  it  should  be  built  by  convict- 
labour  in  order  to  reduce  the  expense  of  construction,  and 
curiously  enough  he  suggested  that  the  line  should  be 
carried  through  the  Kicking  Horse  Pass,  through  which 
the  Canadian  Pacific  makes  its  way  to  the  Pacific 
to-day. 

It  was  in  1851  that  the  idea  of  a  trans-continental  railway 
first  crystallised  into  a  tangible  project;  but  as  it  eclipsed 
in  conception  anything  attempted  in  railway  building  up 
to  that  time,  there  was  considerable  timidity  in  launching 
out  upon  a  line  some  3000  miles  in  length.  So  matters 
drifted  until  the  first  trans-continental  railway  was  thrown 
across  the  United  States,  and  San  Francisco  was  brought 
within  a  few  days'  travel  of  New  York.  The  agitation 
then  broke  out  anew  for  a  trans-Canadian  line,  and  Sir 
Hugh  Allan  approached  the  Government  with  a  definite 
scheme.  However,  he  failed  to  enlist  the  practical  assist- 
ance of  financiers,  and  so  the  theme  ranked  as  a  perennial 
topic  of  discussion  until  the  ratification  of  a  project  sup- 
ported by  the  Government  in  1881. 

It  is  doubtful  in  the  history  of  British  North  America 
whether  any  project  of  avowed  benefit  to  the  community 
has  experienced  such  vicissitudes  as  the  first  trans- 
Canadian  railway.  It  wrecked  ministries,  brought  about 
the  political  extinction  of  more  than  one  promising  member 
of  Parliament,  provoked  heated  agitation,  and  involved 
the  abortive  expenditure  of  large  sums  of  money. 

The  Government,  however,  decided  to  help  private 
Q 


226    RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

initiative  sufficiently  daring  to  attempt  the  undertaking  in  a 
liberal  manner.  In  the  first  place  a  subsidy  of  ^£5, 000,000, 
or  $25,000,000,  was  granted  to  aid  construction ;  the 
Government  undertook  to  build  713  miles  with  its  own 
resources,  and  made  a  free  gift  of  25,000,000  acres  of  land 
fringing  its  route.  At  that  time  the  land  was  worthless, 
so  its  bestowal  was  not  of  immediate  value,  but  to-day  it 
represents  an  asset  of  incalculable  value,  and  gives  the 
company  a  sheet  anchor  of  tremendous  strength. 

In  the  end  the  Government  went  very  much  farther. 
It  made  a  free  gift  of  the  line  it  had  constructed,  which 
was  worth  at  the  very  least  ,£7,000,000,  or  $35,000,000. 
While  construction  was  in  progress  there  was  urgent  need 
for  further  money.  Financiers  refused  to  provide  funds, 
and  as  a  result  the  Government  stepped  in  and  advanced 
a  loan  of  ;£6,ooo,ooo — $30,000,000 — which  action  was  so 
bitterly  criticised  at  the  time  that  the  Ministry  was  urged 
to  wipe  off  the  debt  once  and  for  all  by  making  it  a  gift, 
for  all  the  prospect  there  was  of  it  ever  being  repaid.  But 
the  loan  was  redeemed,  partly  by  an  issue  of  stock,  and 
partly  by  the  Government  buying  back  some  7,000,000  of 
the  25,000,000  acres  which  it  had  given  to  the  company  in 
the  first  place  at  6  shillings  per  acre,  representing  to  all 
intents  and  purposes  a  further  gift  of  some  ,£2,000,000, 
or  $10,000,000.  Probably  no  railway  undertaking  has  ever 
been  treated  with  such  prodigal  liberality  in  the  history 
of  the  iron  horse;  but  at  the  time  it  was  warranted  fully, 
bearing  in  mind  the  magnitude  of  the  scheme  and  the 
tremendous  difficulties  which  confronted  the  company  at 
every  turn. 

When  construction  commenced  in  grim  earnest  the 
builders  found  that  the  critics  had  not  erred  on  the  side 
of  under-estimation  in  regard  to  the  character  of  the  diffi- 
culties to  be  overcome.  The  thin  band  of  steel  was  driven 
through  country  of  which  practically  nothing  was  known ; 
where  every  succeeding  mile  revealed  something  unex- 
pected. For  instance,  in  following  the  shore  of  Lake 
Superior  it  was  one  desperate  grapple  with  Nature  for 


W    H 
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2    Q 


FIRST   CANADIAN   TRANS-CONTINENTAL      227 

every  yard.  Mountains  dropped  sheer  into  the  lake,  and 
their  humps  were  divided  by  stretches  of  wicked  muskeg, 
the  Indian  name  for  swamp,  where  in  many  cases  the 
bottom  defied  being  discovered,  and  where  thousands  of 
tons  of  rock  were  swallowed  up  without  showing  any 
gratifying  result. 

To-day  it  is  possible,  from  wider  knowledge,  to  criticise 
the  company  upon  their  selection  of  this  route,  but  at  the 
time  it  was  taken  in  hand  there  was  no  alternative.  For 
a  solid  100  miles  along  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior  the 
work  assumed  a  spectacular  aspect.  The  high  rocky 
cliffs  either  had  to  be  tunnelled,  blasted  right  out  of  the 
way,  or  deep  long  cuts  had  to  be  driven  through  the  solid 
obstruction. 

In  those  days  the  camps  did  not  enjoy  the  comforts  that 
are  possible  now.  The  food  was  of  the  coarsest  descrip- 
tion— in  fact,  often  it  was  nauseous.  Yet  it  was  the  best 
that  could  be  secured  under  the  circumstances.  I  met  one 
of  the  men  who  had  helped  to  drive  the  grade  along  the 
shore  of  Lake  Superior,  and  he  described  the  interest  and 
curiosity  that  was  provoked  by  the  arrival  of  the  first  tin 
of  condensed  milk.  To  them,  milk  was  a  luxury  indeed, 
and  they  as  much  anticipated  its  association  with  their 
tea  or  coffee  as  they  would  have  entertained  the  possibility 
of  receiving  a  glass  of  champagne.  The  tin  of  milk  was 
produced,  and  when  the  first  recipient  had  read  the  story 
of  the  label  it  was  handed  round  to  every  man  in  turn. 
They  scarcely  could  conceive  the  possibility  of  being  able 
to  preserve  such  a  perishable  product  in  a  tin,  and  they 
refrained  from  investigating  the  contents.  At  last,  one  of 
the  more  daring  spirits  took  out  his  ponderous  pocket-  or 
jack-knife  and  plunged  it  into  the  lid.  Tipping  the  vessel 
slightly,  he  watched  the  contents  exude  in  a  thin  viscous 
stream  on  to  his  finger.  Hesitatingly  he  tasted  it,  and  the 
intense  satisfaction  with  which  he  smacked  his  lips  showed 
that  it  was  a  tasty  article  at  all  events,  although  it  might 
be  rank  poison  for  aught  they  knew.  All  in  turn  sub- 
mitted the  commodity  to  this  preliminary  test,  and  there 
Q  2 


228    RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

was  a  unanimous  exclamation  as  to  its  palatable  qualities. 
Very  little  of  that  tin  of  condensed  milk  was  employed  for 
its  avowed  purpose :  the  majority  of  the  men  preferred  to 
enjoy  it  in  its  raw  condition,  as  it  was  something  entirely 
new  to  their  frontier  table.  As  a  result  the  greater  part 
of  the  coffee  and  tea  was  drunk  that  morning  in  its  black 
state,  relieved  with  sugar  only,  as  the  contents  of  the  tin 
disappeared  in  a  far  from  orthodox  manner. 

The  resistance  which  the  rock  offered  was  heart-rending. 
The  men,  by  superhuman  effort,  could  make  their  way  for- 
ward only  a  few  feet  per  day.  Under  these  circumstances 
the  task  swallowed  money  as  remorselessly  as  the  muskeg 
absorbed  dumped  rock.  Results  proved  that  the  con- 
struction of  the  line  along  this  shore  for  about  100  miles 
was  as  expensive  as  threading  the  mountains,  and  in  one 
instance  the  price  mounted  to  as  high  as  ,£140,000,  or 
$700,000,  per  mile,  rendering  it  easily  one  of  the  most 
costly  stretches  of  road  ever  constructed. 

But  though  the  fight  offered  by  the  rock  was  stern,  that 
presented  by  the  muskeg  was  every  whit  as  bad,  though 
it  was  of  a  different  character.  The  great  danger  against 
which  the  company  had  to  contend  was  the  creeping  of 
the  rails.  The  spongy  nature  of  the  soil  over  which  the 
track  was  laid  caused  a  movement  of  the  metals  under 
the  weight  of  a  passing  train.  It  was  just  as  if  the  rails 
had  been  laid  on  a  mass  of  resilient  india-rubber.  The 
lines  would  move  to  one  side  or  the  other  and  often  widen 
out  sufficiently  to  permit  a  train  to  drop  between  them.  It 
was  observed  that  as  a  train  passed  the  elastic  soil  rose 
and  fell  in  a  series  of  little  waves,  often  attaining  a  height 
of  six  inches,  while  the  engineers  could  see  the  rails 
moving  under  the  passing  of  the  train.  It  was  quite 
out  of  the  question  to  spike  the  rails  firmly  to  the  sleepers, 
since  the  movement  was  so  great  that  the  metals  would 
have  forced  themselves  from  their  foundation.  As  it  was, 
the  gangers  had  to  overhaul  the  stretch  of  track  crossing 
the  muskeg  once  every  week.  The  engineer  strove 
valiantly  to  overcome  the  eccentric  movement  of  the  rails, 


FIRST    CANADIAN   TRANS-CONTINENTAL      229 

and  only  succeeded  by  dint  of  great  effort  in  rendering  it 
perfectly  safe.  But  in  this  work  he  had  to  use  sleepers 
measuring  12  feet  in  length,  instead  of  those  of  standard 
dimensions  of  8  feet. 

Then  trouble  arose  with  the  contractors  in  regard  to  the 
cost  of  excavation.  Naturally  the  expenditure  under  this 
heading  varied  according  to  the  character  of  the  material 
encountered,  for  obviously  gravel,  clay,  and  loam  were 
far  easier  and  cheaper  to  remove  than  rock,  and  this  latter 
varied  in  its  workability  according  to  its  geological  forma- 
tion. In  one  case  this  dispute  became  a  bitter  bone  of 
contention  between  the  company  and  the  contractors. 
Upon  the  completion  of  the  work  the  former  came  to  the 
conclusion  that  it  had  been  charged  an  excessive  sum  for 
the  work,  and  upon  consideration  of  the  returns  of  the 
earth  removed  were  convinced  that  an  erroneous  return 
had  been  made.  Amicable  adjustment  of  the  difference 
proving  fruitless,  recourse  had  to  be  made  to  the  courts, 
and  the  authorities  ordered  the  cutting  to  be  re-measured 
so  as  to  determine  the  quantity  of  soil  removed.  In  one 
instance  the  contractors  were  forced  to  return  a  sum  of 
about  ;£6o,ooo,  or  $300,000,  and  many  other  firms  of  con- 
structional engineers  had  to  make  repayments.  It  was 
not  a  question  of  fraud,  but  purely  misinterpretation  of 
the  character  of  the  soil  handled;  yet  it  served  to  promote 
inharmonious  working  between  the  company  and  its 
contractors. 

On  the  prairie,  constructional  effort  was  not  taxed  to  a 
supreme  degree  except  in  regard  to  water.  This  was 
found  to  be  scarce  in  many  parts,  and  is  even  so  to-day. 
The  country  threaded  is  a  continuation  of  the  arid  stretches 
of  North  Dakota  and  Montana,  and  where  the  land  can 
only  be  brought  to  a  state  of  remunerative  productivity 
by  recourse  to  irrigation.  Science,  however,  has  discounted 
the  deficiency  of  nature,  and  to-day  this  dry  belt  is  as 
generously  supplied  with  water  as  those  more  favoured 
with  ample  natural  resources  farther  north,  though  of 
course  the  settler  is  compelled  to  pay  his  quota  to  the 


23o    RAILWAY   CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

expense  of  irrigation  in  the  form  of  a  higher  price  for  the 
land. 

It  was  when  the  mountains  were  met,  however,  that  the 
real  troubles  of  the  company  commenced.  The  battle 
against  the  rocky  bluffs  round  Lake  Superior  was  as  mere 
child's  play  to  what  was  encountered  when  the  mountain 
barrier  was  entered.  The  Government  had  surveyed  a 
route  through  the  mountains,  and  its  choice  had  fallen 
upon  the  Yellowhead  Pass,  the  lowest  summit  in  the 
range,  which  is  only  3,723  feet  above  the  level  of  the  ocean. 
It  was  the  obvious  portal  through  the  mountains  to  the 
coast,  but  the  company  decided  to  thread  the  chain  farther 
to  the  south.  This  decision  aroused  considerable  criticism, 
and  the  Government  only  relented  by  stipulating  that  if 
the  Rockies  were  penetrated  at  any  other  point  it  should 
be  at  least  100  miles  north  of  the  International  Boundary. 
When  the  project  was  consummated  it  was  stipulated  that 
grades  should  not  exceed  i  in  52.8  feet,  and  the  Yellow- 
head  fulfilled  this  requirement  strictly  to  the  letter. 

However,  the  Government's  requirements  being  fulfilled, 
the  line  was  forced  through  the  range  by  way  of  the 
Kicking  Horse  Pass,  a  high  road  used  by  the  couriers  du 
bois  for  some  years  previously.  But  it  proved  a  trying 
piece  of  work.  The  river  is  a  boiling  stream  and  difficult 
of  approach.  The  mountains  rear  up  on  all  sides,  and  in 
order  to  force  their  way  forward  the  engineers  had  to  resort 
to  herculean  efforts,  spanning  tumultuous  streams  and 
carving  narrow  winding  ledges  on  the  sides  of  the  moun- 
tains. Moreover,  it  is  a  heavy  up-hill  pull  for  mile  after 
mile,  until  at  last  the  summit  is  gained  at  an  altitude  of 
5,329  feet.  To  gain  this  point  the  line  winds  in  a  bewilder- 
ing manner,  but  the  vistas  of  mountain  scenery  that  are 
unfolded  are  difficult  to  parallel  out  of  Switzerland. 

When  this  part  of  the  work  was  taken  in  hand  the 
original  arrangements  comprised  tunnelling  beneath  a 
glacier  and  through  the  hump  of  Mount  Stephen,  but  as 
there  was  loud  clamouring  for  the  completion  of  the  line, 
this  undertaking,  which  would  have  involved  a  great 


HOW   THE    CANADIAN    PACIFIC    LINE    CREEPS    ROUND    TOWERING 
PRECIPICES   ALONG   THE    ERASER    RIVER 


FIRST   CANADIAN   TRANS-CONTINENTAL     231 

length  of  time,  and  which  would  have  proved  exceedingly 
costly,  was  abandoned  for  the  time  being  in  favour  of  a 
''temporary  line."  That  deviation,  however,  fulfilled  its 
temporary  requirements  for  a  prolonged  period — a  matter 
of  some  thirty  years  to  be  precise — and  only  recently  has 
been  improved. 

In  making  the  deviation  serious  delays  were  experienced. 
A  rocky  obstacle  stood  in  the  way  and  tunnelling  was  com- 
menced, but  this  work  had  to  be  abandoned  owing  to  the 
collapse  of  the  burrow,  and  a  sharp  curve  and  heavy  bank 
introduced.  The  result  was  that  it  was  found  impossible 
to  comply  with  the  Government's  requirements  concerning 
the  maximum  gradient,  because  in  order  to  descend  from 
Hector  to  Field,  a  distance  of  about  10  miles,  a  difference 
of  1,143  feet  had  to  be  overcome.  This  introduced  a  grade 
adverse  to  eastbound  traffic  of  237  feet  to  the  mile,  and 
it  proved  a  heavy  stumbling-block  against  the  economical 
operation  of  the  line  for  many  years,  and  one  which 
increased  in  severity  with  every  succeeding  year. 

Yet  the  conquest  of  the  Rockies  was  a  marvellous  piece 
of  engineering,  especially  on  three  miles  of  this  bank,  which 
was  so  steep  as  to  earn  the  name  of  the  "Big  Hill,"  for  it 
rose  12  inches  in  every  22  feet,  and  was  one  of  the  stiffest 
pieces  of  road  to  be  worked  by  adhesion  that  ever  had 
been  laid  down  on  a  railway.  It  was  so  steep  as  to  be 
dangerous,  a  fact  testified  by  the  number  of  safety  switches, 
or  "catch  points,"  that  were  introduced.  The  man  in 
charge  of  one  of  these  points,  observing  an  engine  coming 
down-hill,  did  not  know  whether  it  had  run  away  or  not 
until  the  engine-driver  whistled  a  signal  which  conveyed 
the  information  that  he  desired  the  switch  to  be  set  to  the 
main  line,  for  normally  it  was  left  open  and  a  runaway 
at  that  point  would  have  been  turned  into  the  bank,  to  end 
its  mad  career  in  a  wreck.  Now  and  again  engines  did 
run  away,  and  the  "Big  Hill  "  has  witnessed  many  exciting 
escapes  among  the  engine-drivers  and  train  gangs.  To 
grasp  the  significance  of  this  engine  "pull,"  one  required 
to  see  the  "Limited"  steaming  from  the  Pacific  to  the 


232    RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

Atlantic.  It  got  to  the  bottom  of  the  hill,  and  there  three 
other  engines  were  attached  to  the  train  to  push  it  up  the 
ever-dropping  metals  for  over  three  miles,  while  the  clouds 
of  smoke  and  live  cinders  belched  into  the  air,  and  the 
terrible  roar  of  the  engines  straining  at  the  load  testified 
to  the  tremendous  effort  that  was  required  to  get  a  speed 
of  five  miles  an  hour  on  the  train.  It  was  this  feature  that 
led  a  humorist  to  remark  that  the  Canadian  Pacific  rail- 
way never  had  any  occasion  to  ballast  the  track  on  the 
"Big  Hill."  The  engines  performed  this  operation  spon- 
taneously and  automatically  in  their  labour,  and  to  far 
better  effect  than  would  have  been  possible  by  ordinary 
means. 

Considerable  excitement  was  experienced  in  its  con- 
struction. According  to  some  of  the  men  whom  I  met, 
and  who  had  been  connected  with  the  grading  through 
the  Kicking  Horse  Pass,  the  ballast  trains  failed  time 
after  time  to  secure  a  grip  on  the  metals,  and  with  their 
driving-wheels  spinning  round  madly  in  the  forward  direc- 
tion they  skidded  backwards  down-hill.  Now  and  again 
there  would  be  a  nasty  smash,  in  which  engine  and  the 
ballast  cars  were  mixed  up  in  an  inextricable  heap.  It  is 
reported  even  that  on  one  occasion,  while  the  snow-plough 
was  out  clearing  the  drift  on  the  "Hill,"  the  driver  of  the 
locomotive  lost  the  plough,  and  did  not  discover  the  fact 
until  he  had  gained  the  top,  although  he  was  pushing 
the  snow-clearing  apparatus !  It  was  so  difficult  to  keep 
the  wheel  gripping  the  rails  that  he  did  not  notice  the 
difference  in  the  resistance  when  the  snow-plough  went 
over  one  side. 

From  the  Government's  strict  point  of  view  the  Canadian 
Pacific  was  not  completed  until  about  two  years  ago, 
although  trains  have  been  running  between  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  for  some  thirty  years.  The  authorities  pointed 
out  that  the  grade  was  an  essential  part  of  the  contract, 
and  yet,  in  order  to  pass  through  the  Kicking  Horse  Pass, 
the  company  had  exceeded  that  grade  to  a  very  consider- 
able extent.  Consequently  eight  miles  of  line  was  non- 


FIRST   CANADIAN   TRANS-CONTINENTAL      233 

existent  so  far  as  the  Government  was  concerned,  and  it 
declined  to  contribute  any  subsidy  to  that  short  length  of 
the  railway.  Two  years  ago  compliance  was  made  with 
the  Government's  agreement.  The  route  through  the 
Kicking  Horse  Pass  was  re-aligned.  This  piece  of  work 
was  carried  out  by  the  late  J.  E.  Schwitzer,  and  from  its 
daring  nature  it  will  always  stand  as  a  monument  to  his 
engineering  ability.  He  cut  out  the  "Big  Hill  "  entirely. 
Where  previously  a  bank  rising  i  in  22 J  existed  for  4.1 
miles,  he  provided  a  stretch  of  line  double  the  length  and 
of  one-half  the  gradient,  so  that  the  engines  only  have  to 
overcome  a  climb  of  i  in  45^. 

In  order  to  ease  the  grade  the  line  swings  from  one  side 
of  the  narrow  valley  to  the  other.  Travelling  westwards 
it  disappears  into  the  flank  of  Cathedral  Mountain,  describ- 
ing a  curve  in  the  tunnel  to  emerge  into  the  valley  about 
40  feet  below  the  point  where  it  enters  the  mountain  side. 
It  then  strikes  across  the  valley  to  enter  the  slopes  of 
Wapata  Mountain,  where  another  tunnel  on  a  curve 
like  a  corkscrew  lowers  the  level  of  the  line  for  another 
40  feet.  Once  more  it  crosses  the  valley,  the  meanderings 
being  so  bewildering  as  to  form  a  perfect  maze.  It  recalls 
the  wonderful  spiral  tunnel-work  on  the  St.  Gotthard 
railway  where  a  similar  difficulty  had  to  be  overcome,  and, 
indeed,  the  conquest  of  the  Kicking  Horse  Pass  in  this 
manner  was  based  evidently  upon  the  great  work  in 
Switzerland.  Still,  it  marks  the  first  application  of  this 
ingenious  solution  of  a  trying  problem  to  the  American 
continent. 

To  bring  the  Kicking  Horse  Pass  section  of  the  line 
within  the  recognition  of  the  Government,  however, 
entailed  the  expenditure  of  some  ^300,000,  or  $1,500,000, 
and  found  employment  for  about  1000  men  for  twenty 
months.  Train-load  after  train-load  of  dynamite  was 
brought  up  in  order  to  enable  the  path  to  be  hewn  through 
the  mountain  flanks,  and  by  the  time  the  task  was  com- 
pleted over  1,500,000  pounds  of  explosives  had  been  used 
—something  like  ,£50,000,  or  $250,000,  had  vanished 


234    RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE    WORLD 

literally  in  smoke  to  tear  down  the  rock.  But  the  outlay 
will  be  recouped  well.  Where  four  engines  were  required 
formerly  two  now  suffice  to  handle  a  yoo-ton  train,  and 
they  can  rattle  through  the  Pass  at  a  steady  25  miles  an 
hour,  whereas  previously  a  bare  six  miles  could  be  notched. 

Emerging  from  the  Rockies  the  engineers  were  con- 
fronted by  another  towering  obstacle — the  Selkirks.  This 
range  was  to  be  dreaded  more  than  the  barrier  just  left 
behind,  for  there  was  a  trail  through  the  Rockies  to  guide 
the  engineers,  whereas  the  Selkirks  had  never  been 
threaded.  The  Indians  and  Hudson's  Bay  voyageurs, 
after  emerging  from  the  Rockies,  turned  sharply  south  to 
follow  the  Columbia  River. 

The  first  task,  therefore,  was  to  discover  a  rift  through 
the  Selkirks  through  which  the  metals  might  be  carried. 
It  was  shorter  to  go  through  the  mountains  than  to  go 
round  them  if  any  pass  could  be  found  to  exist.  Major 
Albert  B.  Rogers,  an  American  engineer,  accordingly 
saddled  his  horse  and  with  a  supply  of  provisions  set  off 
to  search  for  a  "Pass."  He  wandered  up  and  down  the 
range  without  success  for  week  after  week,  and  then,  just 
as  he  was  despairing  of  success,  his  eye  alighted  on  a 
narrow  breach  between  two  serried  lines  of  snow-clad 
peaks.  He  spurred  forward,  traversing  territory  on  which 
the  feet  of  neither  white  nor  red  man  had  been  planted, 
climbing  and  toiling  arduously  among  the  crags,  until  at 
last  he  gained  an  altitude  of  4,351  feet,  from  which  the 
opposite  sides  of  the  range  sloped  down  once  more  to  the 
Columbia  River  Valley. 

Rogers'  Pass,  as  this  defile  through  the  Selkirks  was 
named  in  honour  of  the  discoverer,  was  followed.  It  did 
not  offer  any  great  difficulties  from  the  grading  point  of 
view.  The  greatest  enemy  was  snow  and  avalanche.  The 
snowfall  among  these  mountains  is  the  heaviest  along  the 
line,  while  the  avalanches  are  of  terrible  frequency.  Con- 
sequently the  absorbing  question  was  how  to  keep  the  line 
intact  after  once  it  had  been  laid.  It  was  impossible  to 
avoid  the  defined  paths  of  the  snow  movements  entirely, 


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THE    RAILWAY   TRAVERSING   THE    TUMBLED    THOMPSON    RIVER    CANYON 


FIRST   CANADIAN   TRANS-CONTINENTAL      235 

and  in  these  cases  huge  sheds  had  to  be  erected  to  carry 
the  avalanche  harmlessly  over  the  track  to  expend  its 
violence  in  the  gulch  below.  The  extent  of  snow-shedding 
through  the  Selkirks  is  amazing,  and  it  has  proved  terribly 
costly. 

When  the  engineers  attacked  this  country,  as  the  laying 
of  the  track  was  the  paramount  requirement  it  was  pushed 
forward  with  all  speed  during  the  short  summer,  and 
parties  of  men  equipped  with  meteorological  instruments, 
and  vehicles  for  movement  during  winter,  and  supplies  of 
stores,  were  left  at  different  points  to  study  the  snow  ques- 
tion, so  as  to  collect  data  for  the  situation  of  the  snow-sheds. 
There  was  no  difficulty  in  determining  this  latter  point,  for 
the  avalanches  appeared  to  rain  down  upon  the  track  from 
all  sides.  The  question  was  not  so  much  where  to  intro- 
duce the  sheds,  but  where  they  could  be  omitted.  It 
appeared  as  if  the  line  would  have  to  be  carried  almost 
continuously  through  a  wooden  tunnel  to  ensure  its  safety. 

That  the  snow-fiend  is  no  mean  enemy  was  brought 
home  forcibly  some  three  years  ago.  While  a  snow,  train 
was  climbing  up  the  western  slope,  clearing  away  the 
accumulated  mass  of  snow  and  debris  deposited  by  a  slide 
upon  the  track,  another  avalanche  swept  down  upon  the 
little  band  working  so  desperately  to  cut  a  path  for  the 
mail.  Over  100  men  were  on  the  train  when  the  terror  of 
the  mountains  struck  them  and  swept  the  whole  into  the 
gulch  below,  the  locomotives  and  plough  weighing  over 
50  tons  being  bowled  over  and  over  like  an  india-rubber 
ball  as  they  were  hurtled  down  the  steep  slopes.  Over 
fifty  lives  were  lost  in  that  catastrophe,  and  it  was  but  one 
of  many  which  have  happened  since  the  Selkirks  were  first 
gridironed  by  the  railway. 

But  snow-shedding,  while  securing  the  safety  of  the 
line,  has  its  drawbacks.  If  a  structure  is  made  too  lengthy 
it  becomes  filled  with  suffocating  smoke  which  obscures 
all  signals,  and  deadens  all  sounds.  In  summer  another 
danger  exists.  The  district  threaded  is  one  ravaged 
heavily  by  forest  fires,  and  the  danger  from  this  enemy 


236    RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

was  only  too  vividly  apparent.  At  this  juncture  Mr.  W.  C. 
Van  Home  came  to  the  rescue  of  the  engineers,  as  he  had 
done  on  many  previous  occasions,  to  extricate  them  from 
their  difficulty.  He  suggested  that  the  maximum  length 
of  a  single  shed  should  be  3000  feet,  and  where  the  con- 
ditions demanded  a  long  continuous  length  of  this  pro- 
tection, that  it  should  be  broken  up  into  units  with  wide, 
clear  intervals  of  open  line  between. 

To  prevent  these  "breaks"  becoming  filled  with  debris 
he  resorted  to  an  ingenious  expedient.  Up  on  the  moun- 
tain side  he  built  what  is  known  as  a  "split  fence."  This 
is  a  triangular  erection,  with  the  apex  pointing  towards 
the  mountain  top,  of  heavy  massive  construction  and 
filled  and  banked  with  masonry.  The  descending  slide 
strikes  this  obstruction,  becomes  split  in  twain,  one  half 
is  deflected  so  as  to  roll  over  the  roof  of  the  snow-shed  on 
one  side,  and  the  other  half  caused  to  glance  off  in  a 
similar  manner  on  the  other  side.  If  one  of  these  con- 
structions did  not  secure  the  desired  end,  then  another  was 
planted  above  it  higher  up  the  mountain  side.  The  suc- 
cess of  this  system  has  been  remarkable,  and  it  has  enabled 
the  company  to  reduce  the  lengths  of  the  sheds  very 
appreciably. 

Shortly  after  the  line  was  opened  the  protective  handi- 
work of  the  engineers  was  subjected  to  trying  tests.  The 
winter  of  1886-7  was  one  °f  excessive  severity  even  for  the 
Selkirks.  In  less  than  a  week  8J-  feet  of  snow  fell,  and 
the  blizzard  raged  continuously  for  three  weeks.  Slides 
were  of  daily  occurrence,  the  silence  of  the  mountains 
being  broken  by  the  continuous  roar  of  the  avalanche. 
The  snowfall  on  the  summits  exceeded  35  feet,  and  the  white 
mantle  was  piled  upon  the  roofs  of  the  sheds  to  a  depth  of 
50  feet.  The  slides  were  of  terrific  fury,  some  rattling 
down  the  slopes  with  such  force  and  speed  as  to  rebound 
300  feet  or  so  up  the  opposite  mountain  side.  Thousands 
of  tons  of  rock,  some  pieces  as  large  as  a  small  villa,  were 
caught  up  in  their  frantic  rushes,  while  tall,  thick  trees 
were  snapped  off  like  matches  and  tossed  about  like  straws. 


FIRST   CANADIAN   TRANS-CONTINENTAL     237 

Yet  with  one  exception  the  sheds  withstood  the  terrible 
bombardments  to  which  they  were  subjected.  The  solitary 
case  had  the  roof  torn  off  completely  to  be  thrown  well 
above  the  track  on  the  mountain  side. 

Mud-slides  were  another  visitation  which  had  to  be 
respected,  for  time  after  time  a  cutting  had  to  be  cleared 
of  a  viscous  mass  which  had  slipped  into  the  excavation. 
These  movements  are  produced  by  a  kind  of  sand,  which, 
when  it  becomes  saturated  with  water,  slips  and  slides  in 
all  directions  in  an  amazing  manner,  carrying  everything 
with  it.  In  winter,  when  under  the  grip  of  frost,  the  soil 
looks  perfectly  safe  and  stable,  but  when  the  weather 
breaks  innumerable  springs  come  to  life,  and  in  a  short  time 
the  whole  mass  commences  to  move  like  a  lava  stream. 

In  addition  to  resorting  to  extreme  protective  measures 
against  the  avalanche  where  these  could  not  be  avoided, 
some  magnificent  pieces  of  bridge-work  were  carried  out 
at  other  points  to  avoid  them.  In  the  first  instance  several 
were  erected  in  wood  to  save  time,  to  be  replaced  by 
permanent  metal  structures  at  a  later  date.  In  many  cases, 
however,  iron,  and  in  others  masonry,  had  to  be  adopted 
in  the  first  instance. 

There  was  one  gully  which  perplexed  the  engineers 
sorely.  It  was  just  a  cleft  in  the  perpendicular  mountain 
cliff.  The  engineers  called  it  the  "Jaws  of  Death,"  and 
the  name  was  appropriate.  They  had  to  cross  this  couloir, 
and  a  temporary  timber  bridge  was  built  by  dint  of 
tremendous  effort.  The  engineers  congratulated  them- 
selves upon  their  success,  but  their  gratification  was  short- 
lived. A  constructional  train  ventured  to  cross  and  the 
structure  collapsed  under  its  weight.  Here  was  a  dilemma. 
Work  was  brought  to  a  standstill  and  there  was  grave 
deliberation.  Mr.  Van  Home  heard  of  the  accident,  and 
hurried  to  the  front.  He  surveyed  the  gully,  and  there  and 
then  decided  to  throw  an  arched  masonry  bridge  across  the 
breach.  It  was  built,  and  what  was  more  to  the  point,  it 
stood ;  the  constructional  gangs  could  get  forward. 

At  Stoney  Creek  there  was  another  trouble  of  a  like 


238    RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

nature.  The  V-shaped  ravine  was  deep  and  wide,  and  it 
was  recognised  that  something  different  from  what  had 
been  done  in  bridge-building  up  to  this  point  was 
imperative.  Two  wooden  towers  were  built  on  either  side 
to  a  height  of  200  feet,  and  these  supported  a  single  span 
of  172  feet  over  the  gulch,  which  was  carried  out  in  wood 
also.  From  end  to  end  the  bridge  measured  490  feet,  and 
for  years  it  ranked  as  the  highest  wooden  bridge  on  the 
continent.  The  timber  structure,  however,  has  long  since 
made  way  for  a  noble  arched  steel  bridge  springing  from 
the  rocky  sides  of  the  gulch,  and  it  constitutes  one  of  the 
most  graceful  bridges  on  the  whole  of  the  system. 

The  descent  from  the  Selkirk  summit  involved  the 
execution  of  some  startling  pieces  of  engineering  to  gain 
the  banks  of  the  Illecillewaet  River.  The  line  makes  its 
way  down  the  mountain  side  in  a  series  of  steps  or  terraces 
connected  at  the  ends  by  sharp  loops,  doubling  and 
redoubling  on  itself  to  overcome  a  difference  of  600  feet  in 
altitude  in  the  most  extraordinary  manner.  The  train  is 
first  running  eastwards,  disappears  round  the  corner  and 
then  is  making  its  way  in  the  opposite  direction  a  few 
feet  below,  to  round  another  curve  and  once  more  steams 
eastwards,  this  alternate  running  backwards  and  forwards 
continuing  until  the  valley  of  the  Illecillewaet  River  is 
gained,  by  which  time  the  train  has  travelled  over 
6  miles  of  metals  to  make  an  actual  advance  of  only 
2  miles. 

Issuing  from  the  Selkirks,  another  barrier,  the  Gold 
Range,  had  to  be  traversed,  but  this  was  a  comparatively 
easy  matter,  as  the  Eagle  Pass  is  a  natural  causeway 
among  the  peaks  for  the  iron  road,  although  its  discovery 
taxed  Walter  Moberly  to  an  extreme  degree,  as  is  narrated 
in  another  chapter.  In  this  pass  the  engineers,  driving 
the  line  from  the  east,  met  the  forces  advancing  from  the 
west.  They  shook  hands  at  a  point  known  as  Craig- 
ellachie,  where  the  connection  between  the  two  arms  was 
made — where  the  "golden  spike"  was  driven  home — and 
the  Pacific  seaboard  was  brought  into  touch  with  the 
Atlantic  through  Canadian  territory. 


L 


THE    CISCO    CANTILEVER    BRIDGE    CARRYING    THE    CANADIAN    PACIFIC 
RAILWAY    ACROSS    THE    ERASER    RIVER 

The  bridge  leads  to  a  tunnel  driven  through  the  precipitous  wall  of  the  canyon. 


FIRST   CANADIAN   TRANS-CONTINENTAL     239 

The  Pacific  end  of  the  line  was  taken  in  hand  by  the 
Government,  and  it  must  be  conceded  that  they  had  most 
difficult  work  to  accomplish,  for  they  had  to  force  their 
way  through  the  Eraser  and  Thompson  River  canyons, 
producing  the  heaviest  300  continuous  miles  of  engineer- 
ing on  the  whole  line.  They  had  to  fight  for  every  inch 
of  the  way  through  these  ravines,  as  the  bottom  is  entirely 
occupied  by  the  water.  The  line  is  laid  on  a  gallery 
carved  in  the  cliff-face  200  feet  above  the  waters  boiling 
beneath,  in  a  succession  of  cuts  and  tunnels,  with  some 
fine  examples  of  bridging,  of  which  the  cantilever  structure 
across  the  Fraser  River  of  300  feet  span  was  the  second  of 
its  character  to  be  built  on  the  American  continent.  This 
link  cost  about  ,£2,000,000,  or  $10,000,000,  to  build,  repre- 
senting about  ,£16,000,  or  $80,000,  per  mile  purely  for 
the  formation  of  the  grade  ready  to  receive  the  metals. 

Considering  the  magnitude  of  this  undertaking  and  the 
fact  that  the  railway  extended  through  extremely  diversified 
country  from  level  plain  to  tumbled  lofty  mountains,  con- 
struction at  the  rate  of  some  five  hundred  miles  per  annum 
was  a  magnificent  achievement.  For  the  greater  part  of 
the  distance  it  traversed  country  where  the  white  man  was 
not  in  occupation,  and  where  several  years  were  certain 
to  pass  before  it  yielded  any  economic  value  capable  of 
producing  traffic  to  the  railway.  The  enterprise  was 
jeopardised  seriously  by  the  financial  panic  in  the  United 
States,  and  the  Northern  Pacific  railway  crisis,  which  mis- 
fortunes did  not  augur  well  for  the  success  of  another 
trans-continental  railway.  When  it  was  finished,  the 
inquiry  as  to  why  it  had  been  built  through  an  absolute 
wilderness  from  end  to  end  was  raised  on  all  sides.  The 
present  day  supplies  the  answer  to  that  criticism  to  a  com- 
plete degree.  From  the  day  of  its  completion  the  Dominion 
went  forward  with  a  rush,  and  it  cannot  be  denied  that  the 
province  of  British  Columbia  played  an  important  part  in 
the  development  of  the  country  when  it  insisted,  as  a  return 
for  its  entrance  into  the  federation  of  the  provinces,  that  a 
railway  should  be  built  across  the  continent  to  link  the 
east  with  the  west  within  ten  years. 


CHAPTER    XIX 

A  RAILWAY   OVER  THE   SEA 

THE  Florida  express  was  speeding  southwards  over  the 
railway  which  skirts  the  coast  of  Florida  for  mile  after  mile. 
Among  the  passengers  was  Mr.  Henry  Flagler,  one  of 
America's  captains  of  industry  and  finance.  He  was 
gazing  out  idly  to  sea.  On  the  horizon  were  streams  of 
vessels  steaming  northwards  and  southwards  in  two  long 
flung-out  lines.  They  were  units  in  the  great  coastal 
service  of  steamships  which  ply  incessantly  up  and  down 
this  long  stretch  of  coast  between  New  York,  the  West 
Indies  and  the  ports  dotted  along  the  shore  line  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico. 

At  that  time  the  island  of  Cuba  was  undergoing  a  won- 
derful change.  Its  vast  resources  were  being  exploited  by 
men  of  initiative  and  energy  from  the  two  sides  of  the 
Atlantic,  and  the  steamship  traffic  between  the  island  and 
the  mainland  was  advancing  by  leaps  and  bounds. 

The  financier  was  cogitating  deeply.  His  thoughts  had 
strayed  to  the  subject  of  this  development,  and  the  fresh 
impetus  it  would  receive  when  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  was 
at  last  pierced  and  vessels  could  float  through  the  neck  of 
the  continent  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  He  was  the 
controlling  force  of  the  railway  over  which  he  was  then 
travelling,  and  he  was  weighing  the  question  as  to  whether 
new  sources  of  revenue  could  not  be  tapped  for  this  system. 
The  southernmost  point  reached  by  the  Florida  East  Coast 
railway  was  Miami,  and  though  it  was  a  rising  town,  he 
saw  that  its  future  was  limited,  because  it  formed,  as  it 
were,  a  dead-end  to  the  line. 

As  a  result  of  his  ruminations  he  decided  to  make  a  bold 
bid  for  the  Cuban  trade — to  deflect  traffic  from  the  decks 

240 


A    RAILWAY   OVER  THE   SEA  241 

and  holds  of  the  passing  steamers.  A  hundred  miles  or 
so  south  of  Miami  was  one  of  the  most  strategical  com- 
mercial ports  of  the  country — the  outpost  of  the  United 
States — where  more  than  50  per  cent,  of  the  vessels 
trading  up  and  down  the  coast  make  a  call.  Moreover,  it 
was  the  point  nearest  to  the  island  of  Cuba,  Havana  being 
scarcely  60  miles  away.  Yet  Key  West  was  completely 
isolated ;  there  was  not  a  single  stretch  of  steel  binding  it 
to  the  intricate  railway  network  of  the  country. 

The  magnate  decided  to  forge  this  missing  link  in  the 
railway  chain ;  to  bring  Key  West  into  direct  touch  with 
New  York,  Chicago,  San  Francisco,  or  any  other  town  on 
the  continent.  From  his  point  of  view  he  could  see  no 
obstacle  to  the  realisation  of  such  a  scheme  beyond  the 
capital  cost  of  the  undertaking. 

When  he  returned  to  New  York  he  summoned  his  sur- 
veyor, to  whom  he  unfolded  his  idea,  and  to  seek  his 
opinion  concerning  the  technical  aspect  of  the  proposition. 
Mr.  Flagler's  proposal  was  to  carry  the  line  southwards 
from  Miami  to  the  extremity  of  the  country  lying  at  the 
outermost  end  of  a  chain  of  coral  reefs,  and  from  that  point 
to  transport  trains  intact  on  the  deck  of  large  ferry-boats  to 
Havana,  where  they  could  be  pushed  on  to  the  tracks  of 
the  Cuban  system.  Transhipment  of  passengers  and  the 
breaking  bulk  of  freight  between  the  great  centres  of  the 
United  States  and  the  island  would  be  obviated,  while  the 
time  that  would  be  saved  on  the  passage  was  considerable, 
and,  indeed,  sufficiently  attractive  to  tempt  one  to  embark 
upon  the  enterprise. 

The  engineer  admitted  that  the  scheme  was  alluring,  but 
pointed  out  that  for  some  30  miles  south  of  Miami  the 
line  would  have  to  be  pushed  through  one  of  the  worst 
stretches  of  country  in  the  United  States,  "The  Ever- 
glades," emerging  from  which  heavy  bridging  would  be 
required  to  link  the  chain  of  islands  together. 

However,  the  engineer  was  dispatched  southwards  with 
a  corps  of  surveyors  to  investigate  the  practicability  of  the 
scheme  on  the  spot.  They  lived  for  months  in  the  inhos- 


242    RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

pitable  bog  beyond  Miami,  and  steamed  to  and  fro  among 
the  islets  with  their  transit  and  level,  plotting  out  the  most 
economical  and  easiest  route,  sounding  the  water  depths 
around  the  coral  reefs  to  determine  the  extent  and  cost  of 
bridging,  and  the  best  means  of  crossing  these  breaches 
in  the  reef. 

Then  the  surveyor  returned  to  New  York  and  sought  the 
railway  magnate.  The  engineer  had  a  complete  roll  of 
drawings  and  a  mass  of  calculations  and  figures.  He 
related  the  fruits  of  his  labours,  pointed  out  the  route  that 
he  suggested  should  be  followed,  and  hinted  that,  although 
the  railway  could  be  built,  the  cost  would  be  tremendous — 
would  involve  the  expenditure  of  millions. 

The  financier,  however,  was  not  perturbed  in  the  least 
by  the  cost.  The  project  received  his  sanction,  and  a  few 
days  later  the  engineer  departed  to  commence  operations. 
Little  time  was  lost  upon  the  essential  preparations,  and 
soon  the  grade  was  forcing  its  way  out  of  Miami  towards 
the  most  southerly  point  of  the  United  States. 

News  concerning  the  enterprise,  \vhich  up  to  this  point 
had  been  nursed  in  secrecy,  now  leaked  out.  The  activity 
around  Miami  pointed  to  something  unusual  being  under 
contemplation.  When  the  object  of  the  extension  became 
known  the  financial  magnate  became  the  butt  of  widespread 
ridicule.  His  ambitious  project  was  christened  "Flagler's 
Folly,"  under  which  name  the  railway  has  since  been 
known  colloquially. 

"Well,  there  is  one  thing  for  which  travellers  will  bless 
me  when  they  travel  by  rail  over  the  Keys,"  the  moving 
spirit  humorously  replied  to  his  detractors:  "they  will 
never  be  troubled  with  dust." 

From  Miami  southwards  so  far  as  the  eye  can  reach 
stretches  a  dismal  tract  of  swamp  where  miasma  reigns 
supreme.  The  Everglades  lie  below  the  level  of  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  and  the  latter  is  only  prevented  from  grasp- 
ing the  enormous  waterlogged  expanse  within  its  ravenous 
maw  by  a  slender  wall  of  rock  which  runs  right  along  the 
coast.  But  though  this  barrier  resists  the  incursion  of  the 


A   RAILWAY   OVER   THE   SEA  243 

ocean,  at  the  same  time  it  prevents  the  imprisoned  water 
on  the  other  side  from  effecting  an  escape.  The  result  is 
that  stagnant  water,  varying  from  a  few  inches  to  several 
feet  in  depth,  according  to  the  season,  spreads  over  the 
whole  of  the  depression.  It  is  a  huge  bog  and  nothing 
more,  with  dank,  dense  vegetation  growing  riotously  in  all 
directions,  forming  an  ideal  home  for  the  alligator,  which 
here  is  found  in  large  numbers.  Some  30  miles  of  this 
uninviting  marsh  confronted  the  engineers,  and  until 
scientific  effort  discovers  some  means  of  reclaiming  the 
country  fringing  the  railway  from  eternal  water,  it  must 
remain  unproductive. 

The  engineers  found  this  bog  difficult  to  penetrate. 
Drainage  was  impossible,  and  the  raising  of  an  embank- 
ment, with  the  ordinary  type  of  implements  at  command, 
was  out  of  the  question,  because  it  was  impossible  to  secure 
a  solid  foundation  for  their  manipulation.  For  a  few  miles 
south  of  Miami  a  rocky  ridge  thrust  its  hump  above  the 
level  of  the  marsh,  and  as  its  situation  was  convenient  it 
was  followed  to  the  uttermost  limit. 

When  the  builders  were  compelled  to  plunge  boldly  into 
the  marsh  they  were  beset  with  difficulties  innumerable. 
Mr,  Flagler  had  realised  from  the  outset,  after  meditating 
upon  the  plans  and  reports  of  the  surveyors,  that  the  only 
practicable  means  of  seeing  his  scheme  carried  to  fruition 
was  by  means  of  direct  labour  under  his  own  engineers, 
instead  of  by  contract.  Consequently,  he  secured  the 
services  of  the  most  capable  engineers  available,  while 
labour  was  recruited  from  all  sides.  Fortunately,  no  diffi- 
culty was  experienced  in  this  direction,  because  the  offer 
of  good  wages,  with  everything  found,  was  considered  by 
the  workmen  to  be  an  equitable  compensation  for  the  risk 
of  malaria. 

The  engineer-in-chief,  the  late  J.  O.  Meredith,  who  died 
in  harness  amid  the  scene  of  his  labours,  resorted  to  highly 
ingenious  methods  to  overcome  the  fever-ridden  swamp. 
Not  only  did  the  conditions  demand  that  a  heavy,  solid 
earthen  embankment  should  be  built,  with  its  level  well 

R  2 


244    RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

above  the  highest  watermark,  but  that  the  ridge  of  earth 
should  be  prevented  from  spreading  at  the  base  under  the 
superimposed  weight  of  a  heavy  train,  and  from  the 
insidious  attacks  of  soaking  water. 

Owing  to  the  absence  of  rock  and  gravel  in  the  immediate 
vicinity,  it  appeared  as  if  the  engineer  would  have  to  haul 
trainloads  of  material  for  this  purpose  from  long  distances, 
and  at  great  expense,  to  be  dumped  into  the  unstable  mass. 
But  he  decided  otherwise.  He  conceived  a  far  more  rapid, 
simple  and  inexpensive  means  of  building  the  embankment. 
Two  large,  square,  shallow-draught  dredgers  were  built, 
with  large  grabs  rising  and  falling  from  the  upper  end  of 
a  projecting  diagonal  wooden  girder  or  jib.  These  were 
towed  to  a  point  known  as  Land's  End.  Here,  on  either 
side  of  the  strip  of  land  forming  the  right-of-way  for  the 
iron  horse,  and  whereon  the  embankment  was  to  be  raised, 
an  excavation  was  made.  Each  cut  was  30  inches  deep  and 
just  wide  enough  to  float  the  vessel  comfortably.  ,;' 

The  grabs  were  then  brought  into  play,  and  with  each 
swing  they  withdrew  a  huge  mouthful  of  the  waterlogged 
soil,  swung  it  round,  and  ejected  it  upon  the  grade.  The 
grabs  were  heavy  and  powerful ;  their  teeth  crunched 
through  roots  and  decayed  vegetable  matter  relentlessly. 
It  will  be  seen  that,  as  a  result,  each  dredger  dug  a  canal 
for  itself  as  it  advanced  on  either  side  of  the  grade,  forming 
two  parallel  paths,  with  a  belt  of  dry  land  between.  Now 
and  again  their  advance  was  disputed.  Just  below  the 
water  lurked  a  large  rock  which  defied  removal  by  the 
terrible  teeth,  and  yet  projected  too  near  the  surface  to 
enable  the  dredger  to  float  over. 

Then  the  engineer  gave  another  demonstration  of  his 
ingenuity.  Instead  of  wasting  time  in  blasting  away  the 
rock,  he  threw  a  temporary  dam  across  the  ditch  behind  the 
dredger,  forming  a  kind  of  lock.  Water  was  pumped  from 
the  fellow  ditch  to  raise  the  level  of  the  water  a  sufficient 
degree  to  enable  the  dredger  to  float  over  the  obstruction. 

The  only  difficulty  experienced  in  this  manner  of  hand- 
ling the  marsh  was  that  the  marl  torn  out  by  the  grabs  and 


BUILDING    THE    GRADE.         THE    DREDGER    CUTTING    ITS 

OWN    PATH    AND    DUMPING    REMOVED    SPOIL   IN    CENTRE    TO   FORM    THE 
EMBANKMENT    FOR    THE    TRACK 


Photos,  Hill} 

THE    EMBANKMENT    COMPLETED,    WITH    THE    CANALS    DUG   BY   THE 
DREDGERS   ON    EITHER   SIDE 


HOW   THE    EMBANKMENT    WAS   BUILT   ON    THE    KEYS 

The  dredged  material  was  pumped  through  the  pipe  line  to  fall  between  wooden 
fences  to  form  the  grade. 


Photos,  Hill\ 

HOW   THE    REINFORCED   CONCRETE   ARCHES   WERE    BUILT 
WITHIN   WOODEN    MOULDS 

BUILDING   THE    "OVER-SEA"    RAILWAY 


A   RAILWAY   OVER   THE   SEA  245 

deposited  upon  the  right-of-way  was  so  saturated  after  its 
immersion  for  centuries  that  it  dried  very  slowly,  and 
delays  were  frequent  and  heavy  in  consequence.  One 
layer  of  the  dump  had  to  be  left  exposed  for  a  considerable 
time  before  the  next  could  be  added.  But  the  method  of 
building  the  embankment  proved  so  eminently  successful 
and  efficient,  that  a  new  move  was  made  to  meet  the 
necessity  for  allowing  the  excavated  soil  time  to  dry.  Four 
additional  dredgers  were  built,  two  for  each  canal,  and  these 
were  set  to  work  at  intervals  one  behind  the  other.  The 
foremost  dredger  laid  the  foundations  of  the  embankment, 
the  second  raised  it  a  further  height  some  days  later,  and 
after  another  interval  of  time,  the  third  dredger  contributed 
its  quota  to  the  constructional  work.  In  this  way  the  task 
was  expedited  very  materially.  In  some  places  the  bog 
was  found  to  be  covered  with  mangrove  trees,  the  roots  of 
which  spread  like  a  thick  net  through  the  soil.  The  con- 
sequence was  that  the  grabs  tore  up  a  large  proportion  of 
roots  associated  with  the  soil,  and  the  former  had  to  be  used 
for  embanking  purposes,  as  it  could  not  be  separated  from 
the  inorganic  matter.  But  this  fibrous  substance  dried  very 
quickly,  and  was  so  highly  combustible  that  it  had  to  be 
covered  with  a  thick  layer  of  broken  stone  to  protect  it  from 
fire,  and  also  to  ensure  solidity  by  packing  tightly. 

The  completed  track  has  a  somewhat  novel  appearance. 
There  is  the  ridge  of  earth,  flanked  on  either  side  by  a 
broad  ditch,  cut  by  the  dredgers  and  running  as  equi- 
distantly  from  one  another  as  if  drawn  with  a  parallel  ruler. 
These  side  canals,  however,  serve  to  drain  the  permanent 
way  to  a  certain  extent. 

When  the  railway-builders  made  their  way  through  this 
inhospitable  region  they  did  not  meet  a  vestige  of  civilisa- 
tion for  over  30  miles.  Then  they  came  across  pathetic 
evidences  of  attempts  at  reclamation  here  and  there  in  the 
form  of  tumbling  homes  and  isolated  parties  of  half-starved 
negroes,  vainly  endeavouring  to  extract  some  sort  of 
subsistence  from  the  bog. 

But  it  is  when  the  railway  emerges  from  the  Everglades 


246    RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

that  the  most  wonderful  part  of  the  undertaking  is  seen. 
A  chain  of  some  30  verdant  islands,  composed  of  coral 
limestone,  stretches  out  in  a  graceful  curve  for  about  109 
miles,  to  disappear  finally  into  the  depths  of  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  at  Key  West.  These  reefs  are  separated  by  channels 
of  open  sea,  of  varying  widths.  These  interruptions  to  the 
continuity  of  dry  land  are  spanned  by  massive  arched 
viaducts  wrought  in  masonry.  Where  the  line  traverses 
the  islands  themselves  the  permanent  way  either  is  carried 
on  embankments  or  through  deep  cuts.  The  expensive 
bridging  has  been  reduced  to  the  minimum,  however,  for 
in  some  cases  where  the  water  is  shallow  the  islands  are 
linked  together  by  a  massive  solid  earthen  embankment. 

This  section  of  the  railway  may  be  said  to  be  amphibious 
in  the  full  sense  of  the  word.  In  fact,  at  one  point  the  pas- 
senger in  the  train  is  carried  beyond  the  sight  of  land. 
The  engineer  had  to  build  his  structure  sufficiently  strong 
and  solid  as  to  combat  the  forces  of  wind  and  wave,  and  at 
a  level  beyond  the  reach  of  the  spray.  When  it  is  remem- 
bered that  the  railway  runs  through  a  territory  where 
tropical  storms  of  terrific  fury  prevail,  and  where  cyclones 
are  continually  wreaking  widespread  damage,  some  idea 
of  the  character  of  the  work  requisite  to  withstand  the 
buffetings  of  these  abnormal  visitations  may  be  gathered. 

These  climatic  disadvantages  were  brought  forcibly 
before  the  moving  spirit  in  the  enterprise  at  the  time  of  its 
conception,  and  accordingly  he  demanded  that  the  bridge- 
work  should  be  built  as  strongly  as  engineering  science 
could  make  it.  No  expense  was  to  be  spared,  for  the 
financier  was  determined  that  no  apprehensions  as  to  safety 
should  be  permitted  to  lurk  in  the  mind  of  the  timid 
traveller. 

The  engineer  took  him  at  his  word.  The  depth  of  water 
in  which  the  viaducts  are  built  ranges  from  10  to  15  feet 
and  more,  while  the  rails  are  laid  31  feet  above  low  water, 
At  some  places  the  channel  is  wide  enough  to  float  a  large 
steamship.  The  viaducts  have  been  carried  out  in  ferro- 
concrete, wherein  the  masonry  is  strengthened  by  means 
pj;  iron  rods,  freely  intersecting,  which  serve  to  bind  the 


A   RAILWAY   OVER  THE   SEA  247 

whole  mass  into  a  solid,  homogeneous  whole,  so  that  the 
viaduct  from  end  to  end  becomes  practically  a  single, 
monolithic  structure. 

To  enable  the  subaqueous  portions  of  the  piers  to  be  built, 
coffer-dams  were  erected  around  the  sites,  the  space  within 
being  emptied  and  kept  clear  of  water  by  means  of  powerful 
pumps.  By  this  means  the  workmen  were  enabled  to  carry 
out  their  task  of  securing  the  fabric  to  the  solid  rock  on  the 
dry  coral  sea-bed.  Where  the  water  ran  up  to  a  depth  of 
30  feet,  and  the  situation  was  exposed  to  the  full  fury  of 
gales  and  of  the  Atlantic,  caissons  were  sunk  for  the 
purpose  of  constructing  the  piers  to  above  water-level,  the 
men  working  in  compressed  air.  The  material  for  con- 
structional purposes  was  prepared  on  large,  well-equipped 
floating  plants  anchored  near  by.  The  timber  moulds  to 
form  the  shape  of  the  arches  were  fashioned  and  bolted 
together  on  dry  land,  and  towed  out  to  sea  by  tugs  to  the 
point  of  erection  and  there  set  in  position. 

Some  of  these  series  of  arches  on  the  amphibious  section 
of  the  railway  are  only  a  few  hundred  feet  in  length  ;  others 
measure  as  many  thousands  of  feet  from  end  to  end.  For 
instance,  between  Long  and  Grassy  Keys — the  islands  are 
known  as  "keys  " — the  over-sea  viaduct  is  2  miles  from  end 
to  end. 

The  viaduct  work  was  confined  to  the  deepest  parts  of 
each  channel,  being  approached  from  either  end  over  a  sub- 
stantial earthen  embankment.  Some  idea  of  how  this  ex- 
pedient saved  the  costly  task  of  bridge-building  may  be 
obtained  from  the  fact  that  whereas  the  distance  by  the 
line  between  Grassy  and  Long  Keys  is  29,544  feet— 5.6 
miles — the  approach  embankments  aggregate  19,100  feet  of 
this  total,  the  long,  symmetrical  line  of  arches  totalling 
10,444  feet.  In  the  case  of  the  gap  between  two  other  keys 
the  water  is  closed  by  an  embankment  21,800  feet  in  length. 
In  another  instance  the  earthen  structure  stretches  for 
11,950  feet  to  connect  Upper  and  Lower  Matecumbe,  but 
inasmuch  as  this  channel  is  used  by  vessels,  the  navigable 
channel  is  spanned  by  a  drawbridge  120  feet  in  length  to 
permit  vessels  to  pass  between  the  Atlantic  and  the  Gulf 


248    RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

of  Mexico.  In  the  first  78  miles  of  track  running  out  to  sea 
from  the  mainland  no  less  than  14  miles  represent  bridge- 
work,  the  remaining  64  miles  being  carried  out  on  embank- 
ments across  the  islands  and  shallow  straits,  or  by  timber 
trestling. 

On  the  islands,  grading  was  not  accompanied  by  any 
great  difficulties.  The  Keys  are  for  the  most  part  somewhat 
low-lying,  and  a  certain  amount  of  excavation  and  filling 
was  required.  The  latter  work  was  expedited  by  building 
a  crude  trestle  down  the  centre  of  the  right-of-way,  on 
which  was  laid  a  large  pipe  communicating  with  dredgers, 
and  through  this  conduit  was  pumped  sand,  mud  and 
gravel  in  a  continuous  stream  to  form  the  grade  to  the 
required  height,  the  slopes  on  either  side  afterwards  being 
flanked  with  a  thick  layer  of  large  stones.  Direct  labour 
was  employed  on  this  section  of  the  undertaking  also,  and 
for  the  most  part  the  ordinary  wheelbarrow,  pick  and  shovel 
supplemented  the  efforts  of  the  dredger  and  pipe  line.  As 
the  Keys  are  of  coralline  limestone,  an  excellent  material  for 
ballasting  the  line  was  readily  available. 

When  a  point  known  as  Bahia  Honda  was  gained,  the 
engineer-in-chief  resorted  to  more  expeditious  practice.  Ten 
huge  mechanical  excavators,  each  capable  of  doing  every 
day  the  work  of  from  50  to  100  men,  were  brought  into 
action.  They  devoured  the  spoil  to  throw  up  the  embank- 
ment at  such  a  speed  that  one  could  see  the  grade's  daily 
growth.  It  was  a  tedious  operation  to  get  these  excavators 
to  the  scene  of  action,  because  they  had  to  dig  their  own 
way  through  the  soil  to  the  right-of-way,  a  task  which 
occupied  from  one  to  four  months,  according  to  the 
situation  of  their  respective  stations. 

One  of  the  gravest  difficulties  in  connection  with  the 
whole  undertaking  was  that  experienced  in  provisioning  the 
3000  or  4000  men  scattered  at  various  points,  feverishly 
toiling  to  fulfil  the  realisation  of  the  financier's  dream, 
together  with  the  requisite  material.  Every  drop  of  water, 
either  for  human  requirements  or  machinery,  had  to  be 
transported  in  huge  tanks  from  a  distance  of  100  miles. 
The  engineer-in-chief  pluckily  attempted  to  cut  down  this 


A   RAILWAY   OVER   THE   SEA  249 

haulage  distance  one-half  by  establishing  a  water  station 
at  a  creek  50  miles  nearer  the  front.  But  he  reckoned 
without  Nature: 

They  had  just  got  the  plant  going  when  a  wind  sprang 
up  and  prevented  the  boats,  specially  acquired  to  transport 
the  water  from  the  station  to  the  nearest  point  on  the  rail- 
way, from  approaching  within  a  mile  or  so  of  the  shore. 
Hurried  arrangements  had  to  be  made  to  draw  temporary 
supplies  from  Miami  once  more.  A  week  or  two  later  the 
wind  veered  round  and  blew  just  as  furiously  in  the  oppo- 
site direction,  with  the  same  result.  This  experience 
sufficed  to  prove  that  no  reliance  could  be  placed  upon  the 
new  water  station,  so  it  was  abandoned. 

Similarly,  all  the  broken  rock  for  the  concrete  had  to  be 
brought  from  the  quarries  at  Miami,  and  with  the  cement 
was  stacked  in  huge  heaps  at  Knight's  Key,  which  consti- 
tuted the  supply  depot.  The  scattered  situations  of  some 
of  the  constructional  gangs  taxed  the  efforts  of  the  com- 
missariat to  a  straining-point.  In  many  cases  the  supply 
boats,  in  order  to  get  to  their  destination,  only  perhaps  a 
mile  distant  as  the  bird  flies,  had  to  follow  a  circuitous 
route  of  eight  or  ten  miles  to  get  there. 

When  it  was  seen  that  Mr.  Flagler  was  serious  in  his 
intentions,  and  that  the  first  stretch  of  viaduct  was  com- 
pleted successfully,  it  was  maintained  that  "Flagler's 
Folly,"  though  a  wonder  of  engineering,  never  could  hope 
to  pay  its  way.  Time  alone  can  prove  or  disprove  this  con- 
tention, but  it  is  worth  while  to  observe  that,  as  each  section 
of  the  line  has  been  completed,  strenuous  efforts  to  develop 
the  country  penetrated  thereby  have  been  made.  The 
Florida  East  Coast  railway  serves  an  essentially  pleasure 
country — the  Riviera  of  America.  Yet,  as  the  line  plunged 
southwards,  hotels  sprang  up  at  various  sylvan  spots,  and 
they  rapidly  assumed  positions  of  importance.  The  only 
barren  stretch  is  the  Everglades.  The  commercial  con- 
quest of  this  useless  expanse  must  come  later  inevitably, 
and  indeed  energetic  measures  to  this  end  are  in  active 
progress. 


CHAPTER    XX 

THE  LAND   OF  REMARKABLE  RAILWAY   BRIDGES 

IN  order  to  describe  fully  the  complete  conquest  which 
the  iron  horse  has  accomplished  in  British  India,  volumes 
would  be  required.  In  that  country  the  steel  highway  has 
been  driven  forward  in  the  face  of  prodigious  difficulties 
of  every  description ;  the  story  is  an  exciting  romance. 

But  the  features  which  impress  the  traveller  most  strongly 
are  the  bridges.  Some  compel  more  than  passing  interest 
because  of  their  great  length,  such  as  the  Sone  bridge,  on 
the  East  Indian  railway,  which  consists  of  93  spans, 
giving  the  structure  a  total  length  of  10,952  feet,  making 
it  one  of  the  longest  bridges  in  the  world ;  or  the  Godavari 
over  the  river  of  the  same  name  on  the  Madras  North-East 
line,  9,066  feet  in  length;  others  because  of  their  height, 
as,  for  instance,  the  Gokteik  Viaduct  in  Burma,  325  feet 
high;  or  the  Dhorabhave  Viaduct,  178  feet  above  the 
stream ;  while  here  and  there  attention  is  challenged  because 
of  the  massive  proportions  of  the  structure  or  its  unusual 
design,  as,  for  instance,  the  Jubilee  Bridge  across  the  river 
Hooghly  at  Naihati,  or  the  Lansdowne  Bridge  across  the 
Indus  at  Sukkur,  the  main  span  of  which  is  790  feet 
clear. 

It  may  be  safe  to  assert  that  no  country  has  offered  the 
bridge-builder  such  striking  opportunities  to  display  his 
ability  or  enterprise  as  the  Indian  Empire.  The  Americans 
point  to  the  great  width  of  their  waterways,  and  the  huge 
structures  which  leap  across  the  Mississippi,  Missouri  or 
Columbia  rivers,  but,  compared  beside  the  erections  which 
carry  the  railway  across  the  Indian  waterways,  they  appear 
puny. 

The  Indian  rivers  are  famous  for  their  great  width,  and 
the  extent  to  which  they  break  up  the  country  through 

250 


LAND  OF  REMARKABLE  RAILWAY  BRIDGES    251 

which  they  make  their  tortuous  ways  to  the  sea.  The 
result  is  that  when  the  engineer  is  called  upon  to  cross  from 
bank  to  bank,  especially  in  connection  with  the  more  im- 
portant waterways,  he  is  faced  with  some  teasing  and 
complex  problems,  to  solve  which  demands  often  consider- 
able ingenuity  and  the  expenditure  of  much  racking  cogita- 
tion. These  rivers  are  bad  friends  to  the  engineer  at  the 
best  of  times,  but  when  lashed  into  fury  and  swelled  to 
flood  they  almost  defy  mastery. 

The  flood  is  the  bugbear  of  the  bridge-builder.  One 
never  knows  what  the  enraged  water  is  going  to  do  next. 
Sir  Bradford  Leslie,  K.C.I.E.,  M.INST.C.E.,  who  probably  has 
been  associated  with  more  great  engineering  achievements 
of  this  character  in  India  than  any  other  living  engineer, 
can  recall  thrilling  moments  innumerable.  For  instance, 
when  he  was  carrying  the  Jubilee  Bridge  across  the  river 
Hooghly,  the  water  carried  away  one  of  the  caissons  which 
he  was  about  to  launch  for  one  of  the  piers.  He  thought 
it  had  been  lashed  safely  into  position  by  means  of  chains, 
preparatory  to  sinking,  but  the  Hooghly  "bore"  quickly 
undeceived  him.  The  Hooghly  bore  is  an  ugly  cus- 
tomer, for  at  times  it  attains  a  height  of  7  feet,  and  travels 
up-stream  for  70  miles  in  four  hours.  This  rapidly-moving 
bank  of  liquid  struck  the  unlucky  caisson,  although  the 
latter  was  of  respectable  dimensions  and  weight,  snapped 
the  mooring  chains  as  if  they  were  pack-thread,  and  carried 
the  cylinder  away  as  if  it  were  a  small  butter-tub.  The 
engineer  had  a  lively  chase  up-stream  after  his  work,  and 
finally  secured  it  stranded  in  an  awkward  position  about 
half-a-mile  above  its  site. 

Immediately  arrangements  were  hurried  forward  to 
salvage  the  caisson.  After  a  day  and  a  half's  continuous 
hard  toil  it  was  recovered  and  anchored  alongside  the  bank 
until  the  next  propitious  moment  arrived  for  it  to  be  towed 
out  into  the  stream  and  sunk  into  position. 

In  the  early  days  the  engineers  in  their  bridge-building 
operations  suffered  the  maximum  width  of  a  river  to  dictate 
what  the  length  of  such  a  structure  should  be.  Seeing  that 


252    RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

the  normal  channels  of  many  of  these  waterways  are  narrow 
in  comparison  with  what  they  attain  under  flood,  this 
rendered  bridge-work  exceedingly  expensive  and  intricate. 
It  is  no  uncommon  circumstance  for  a  waterway,  when 
swollen  by  the  rains  of  the  wet  season,  to  spread  out  for 
a  width  of  three  miles  or  more.  It  becomes  practically 
insatiable,  the  soft  earth  forming  the  banks  falling  a  ready 
victim  to  the  powerful  eroding  action  of  the  scurrying 
water.  The  result  is  worse  than  that  brought  about  by 
the  scouring  of  the  River  Mississippi,  which  devours  huge 
masses  of  land  continually  on  either  bank.  When  the 
Indian  river  falls,  unsightly  stretches  of  undulating  sand- 
banks are  revealed,  riven  by  little  back  channels  and  small 
lagoons,  which  present  a  general  aspect  of  desolation. 
Under  such  circumstances,  bridging  from  bank  to  bank  is 
a  somewhat  vague  undertaking,  for,  the  simple  reason  that 
it  is  difficult  to  decide  what  are  the  limits  of  the  waterway, 
because  erosion  continues  until  the  water  reaches  material 
which  defies  this  action. 

The  engineer  has  met  this  situation  now  in  an  ingenious 
manner.  He  determines  the  channel  of  the  river  and  keeps 
it  within  bounds  by  means  of  an  artificial  wall  or  training- 
bund,  which  is  carried  parallel  with  the  navigable  channel, 
the  flow  of  water  through  the  space  between  the  inner  side 
of  the  wall  and  the  shore  being  obstructed  by  a  solid  em- 
bankment which  carries  the  track.  This  system  was  em- 
ployed first  by  Mr.  J.  B.  Bell  to  carry  the  North- Western 
State  railway  across  the  Chenab  River  at  Sher  Shah,  and 
proved  so  eminently  successful  that  it  has  come  into  general 
favour. 

One  of  the  latest  and  most  interesting,  as  well  as  largest 
undertakings  of  this  class,  is  that  in  connection  with  the 
Curzon  railway  bridge  over  the  Ganges  at  Allahabad,  for 
the  Allahabad-Fyzerbad  railway.  At  this  point  the  river 
flows  between  high  banks  of  hard  clay  about  3  miles 
apart,  and  so  resistant  is  this  earth  to  scouring  action  that 
erosion  has  been  brought  to  cessation  practically.  The 
width  of  the  waterway,  however,  is  about  ij  miles,  arid 


LAND  OF  REMARKABLE  RAILWAY  BRIDGES     253 

when  it  was  decided  to  span  the  river,  a  great  length  of 
steel  appeared  inevitable. 

The  engineer-in-chief  for  the  work,  Mr.  Robert  R.  Gales, 
M.INST.C.E.,  however,  decided  to  cut  down  the  length  of 
the  bridge-work  to  3000  feet.  The  project  was  examined  at 
great  length,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  difference  in  the 
level  of  the  river  during  the  dry  and  flood  seasons  is  not 
less  than  31  feet,  as  the  Ganges  receives  the  waters  of  the 
Jumna  about  7  miles  above  the  site  selected  for  the  cross- 
ing. Careful  investigations,  however,  pointed  to  the  fact 
that  the  accumulated  waters  could  be  directed  safely 
through  a  channel  some  3000  feet  wide,  and  accordingly 
the  erection  of  the  training-bund  was  taken  in  hand  on  the 
left  bank.  It  measures  some  4000  feet  in  length  from  end 
to  end,  and  the  top  is  5  feet  above  the  flood-level  of  the 
river.  The  up-stream  arm  measures  3,300  feet  in  length, 
and  the  extremity  ends  in  a  sharp  curve  to  mitigate  the 
effects  of  scouring.  Viewed  from  the  bank,  the  work 
resembles  a  huge  letter  "L,"  with  the  bottom  arm  pointing 
up-stream,  and  the  tail  overhanging  for  about  700  feet,  while 
the  upright  member  forms  the  embankment  connecting 
the  training-wall  to  the  shore,  and  leads  the  railway  track 
to  the  bridge. 

The  training-wall  is  built  up  of  sandy  soil,  with  stone 
pitched  on  the  face  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  river.  At 
the  top  it  is  about  20  feet  in  width,  and  carries  a  wide-gauge 
railway  track  from  end  to  end,  so  that  should  the  floods  tear 
a  gap  in  the  embankment,  the  injury  can  be  repaired 
immediately  by  dumping  spoil  into  the  breach  from  railway 
wagons. 

Erection  had  to  be  hurried  forward,  as  the  season  avail- 
able for  operations  was  so  short.  In  view  of  the  fact  that 
the  erection  of  the  wall  entailed  the  handling  of  some 
50,000,000  cubic  yards  of  earth,  some  idea  of  the  magni- 
tude of  the  task  may  be  gathered.  It  was  split  up  into  a 
number  of  contracts,  and  when  the  operations  were  in  full 
swing  no  less  than  7000  coolies  found  employment. 

While  this  work  was  in  progress  the  bridge  itself  was 


254    RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

pushed  forward.  The  length  of  metal  is  3000  feet,  divided 
into  15  spans,  each  of  200  feet,  carried  upon  masonry 
piers.  The  bridge  was  called  upon  to  meet  requirements 
not  only  for  railway  traffic  but  for  pedestrians  and  vehicles 
as  well.  A  single  line  of  5  feet  6  inches  gauge  suffices  for 
the  former,  which  is  carried  upon  the  bottom  deck,  while 
the  upper  deck  meets  the  second  requisition,  being  23  feet 
wide  and  about  60  feet  above  the  level  of  the  waterway 
when  in  flood. 

The  undertaking  was  pushed  forward  with  such  energy 
that  it  was  completed  in  three  seasons.  The  saving  in  out- 
lay resulting  from  constricting  the  river  channel,  and 
thereby  reducing  the  length  of  steel-work,  represented  no 
less  than  ;£  100,000,  or  $500,000.  This  offers  a  convincing 
illustration  as  to  the  ingenious  manner  in  which  the  bridge 
engineer  in  India  has  succeeded  in  reducing  the  costs  of 
spanning  the  noble  waterways  of  the  country. 

In  a  far-away  corner  of  the  same  country,  Upper 
Burma,  may  be  seen  another  interesting  example  of  the 
bridge-builder's  craft,  carried  out  under  particularly  exact- 
ing conditions  in  a  forbidding  country.  This  is  the  Gokteik 
Viaduct,  which  carries  the  metre-gauge  single  track  of  the 
Burma  Railway  Company  across  the  gorge  of  the  same 
name.  This  structure  was  completed  by  the  Pennsylvania 
Steel  Company,  of  Steelton,  Pennsylvania,  and  the  award 
of  the  contract  was  criticised  severely  in  Great  Britain. 
But  the  Government  wanted  the  valley  spanned  in  the 
shortest  possible  space  of  time  and  at  a  moderate  price. 
When  the  tenders  invited  from  all  parts  of  the  world  were 
opened,  it  was  found  that  the  British  firms  had  been  out- 
classed by  their  American  rivals  in  both  these  essential 
factors. 

The  location  of  the  railway  across  this  gorge  was  beset 
with  peculiar  difficulties.  The  question  of  the  approach 
was  trying  to  decide  to  the  best  advantage,  and  in  fact  so 
many  surveys  were  made  that  one  of  the  American  en- 
gineers remarked  "that  he  could  not  see  the  side  of  the  cliff 
for  survey  pegs." 


•5- 


g   « 

£  22 
z  „ 


M  fc 

is 


LAND  OF  REMARKABLE  RAILWAY  BRIDGES    255 

The  gorge  itself  is  also  somewhat  strange ;  in  fact,  it  is 
a  curious  wonder  of  Nature.  The  Chungzoune  River  flows 
through  the  rift,  but  out  of  sight,  its  course  being  through 
a  natural  tunnel,  into  which  it  disappears  suddenly  at  a 
depth  of  500  feet.  When  the  line  was  first  surveyed  it  was 
in  accordance  with  a  low  viaduct,  the  approach  thereto 
being  over  a  suggested  section  of  rack  railway  working  on 
the  Abt  system,  with  grades  of  i  in  i2j.  This  was  subse- 
quently abandoned,  and  the  surveyor  was  called  upon  to 
find  a  fresh  location  so  as  to  eliminate  the  rack  railway, 
and  to  give  grades  not  exceeding  i  in  25,  so  as  to  permit 
the  line  to  be  worked  by  adhesion.  This  decision  raised 
the  height  of  the  towers  by  70  feet  and  increased  its  length 
to  1,350  feet.  Even  this  did  not  meet  with  approval,  for 
after  prolonged  deliberation  a  third  location  was  demanded, 
to  give  an  easier  line  yet.  In  this  last  survey  the  gradients 
were  flattened  to  i  in  40,  with  an  attendant  increase  in  the 
height  of  the  structure  as  well  as  of  its  length.  It  was 
found  impossible  to  improve  upon  the  viaduct  itself,  so 
further  surveys  were  carried  out  to  improve  the  approaches, 
reducing  their  length  and  introducing  curves  at  either  end 
of  the  viaduct. 

At  last  finality  was  reached,  and  the  contract  was  secured 
by  the  American  bridge-builders  on  April  28,  1899.  They 
lost  no  time  in  hurrying  forward  the  preparation  of  the 
steel.  Three  months  later  a  special  train  of  45  cars,  laden 
with  977  tons,  left  Steelton  on  the  201 -miles  run  to  New 
York,  where  a  specially  chartered  steamer  was  in  waiting 
to  receive  this  steel  cargo.  The  vessel  left  the  American 
port  on  a  journey  of  over  10,000  miles  to  Rangoon,  where 
the  freight  was  transferred  to  the  small  trucks  of  the  rail- 
way and  sent  on  the  up-country  journey  of  460  miles  to  the 
Gokteik  gorge.  No  less  than  three  steamers  were  required 
to  transport  the  4,308  tons  of  steel,  together  with  some  200 
tons  of  requisite  tackle  for  erection,  and  35  American 
bridge-erectors. 

When  the  Americans  arrived  on  the  scene  they  were 
treated  to  their  first  experience  of  Indian  weather.  The 


256    RAILWAY   CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

rain  fell  in  torrents ;  the  roads  were  converted  into  rushing 
streams,  and  the  low-lying  stretches  of  land  into  lakes. 
This  was  something  new  to  the  Americans,  and  they  chafed 
at  being  compelled  to  sit  down  to  wait  until  the  weather 
moderated.  To  make  matters  worse,  the  line  was  knocked 
about  severely  by  the  rain,  no  less  than  thirteen  wash-outs 
occurring  between  the  coast  and  the  gorge.  In  one  place 
a  locomotive  got  caught.  It  could  not  advance  and  could 
not  retreat,  owing  to  breaches  in  the  railway  on  either  side, 
so  quietly  settled  down  to  rest  in  the  waterlogged  embank- 
ment, and  finally  slipped  into  a  field  of  rice,  to  the  intense 
disgust  of  the  owner. 

The  result  was  that  the  port  became  congested  with  the 
steel  and  tackle  awaiting  dispatch  up-country.  The  railway 
company  repaired  the  wash-outs  with  all  possible  speed,  and 
directly  the  line  was  opened  the  material  poured  towards 
Gokteik  in  a  ceaseless  stream.  In  fact,  the  American  en- 
gineers were  somewhat  perplexed  by  the  speed  with  which 
the  material  was  sent  up,  and  they  had  a  spirited  task  in 
sorting  out  the  pieces  of  steel  as  they  arrived.  The  work 
proceeded  so  feverishly  that  the  empty  trains  could  not  be 
backed  out  of  the  shunting-yard  with  sufficient  alacrity  to 
admit  incoming  loads.  The  bridge-builders  extended 
assistance  in  a  novel  manner.  Shunting  was  abandoned. 
The  large  steam  derricks  picked  up  the  empty  cars  bodily 
off  the  one  track,  whipped  them  round,  and  deposited  them 
upon  a  siding,  from  which  the  engines  pulled  them  out 
as  best  they  could. 

The  railway  company  provided  the  builders  with  a  special 
railway  down  the  side  of  the  cliff,  as  the  approach  was  not 
completed.  This  was  a  huge  switch-back,  where  the  trains 
ran  from  side  to  side,  first  forwards  and  then  backwards. 
The  descent  of  the  precipice  in  this  manner  treated  the 
bridge-builders  to  an  exciting  ride,  which  somewhat  un- 
nerved them  at  first,  as  it  was  far  and  away  too  thrilling 
to  be  pleasant.  A  cableway  was  also  stretched  across  the 
gulch,  and  this  was  used  for  transporting  material  from 
point  to  point.  In  fact,  two  locomotives  were  dismantled 


Photo  by  pet  mission  of  Pennsylvania  Steel  Co.\ 

THE    GOKTEIK   VIADUCT    UNDER   CONSTRUCTION 

The  railway  track  is  825  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Chungzoune  River,  which 
flows  through  a  tunnel  beneath  the  bridge. 


Photo  by  permission  of  Pennsylvania  Steel  Co .  ] 

VIEW    OF    THE    GOKTEIK   VIADUCT 

There  are  eighteen  steel  towers— the  highest  brings  the  rails  325  feet  above  the  floor  of  the 
gorge — supporting  2,260  feet  of  bridging. 


LAND  OF  REMARKABLE  RAILWAY  BRIDGES     257 

and  sent  across  this  rope  in  pieces  to  be  re-erected  on  the 
opposite  side. 

When  the  bridge-builders  arrived  they  found  that  Mr. 
G.  Deuchars,  the  engineer-in-chief  to  the  railway,  had 
completed  the  whole  of  the  preparations.  The  concrete 
pedestals  for  the  steel  towers  stretched  across  the  floor  of 
the  ridge  in  two  unbroken  lines  over  the  top  of  the  natural 
bridge  through  which  the  Chungzoune  River  makes  its  sub- 
terranean way.  All  that  the  bridge-builders  had  to  do  was 
to  set  the  steel. 

The  viaduct  was  built  upon  the  overhanging  principle, 
in  accordance  with  the  American  practice,  by  means  of  a 
traveller.  This  was  a  cumbersome  piece  of  apparatus 
weighing  100  tons,  with  a  long  arm  which  reached  out  over 
the  gorge  from  tower  to  tower.  To  the  native  this  ap- 
pliance was  a  source  of  infinite  wonder.  When  it  was 
pushed  out  to  its  fullest  extent,  and  the  long  arm  appeared 
certain  to  lose  its  balance  and  to  topple  into  the  ravine,  they 
looked  on  with  awe;  and  when  the  Americans  flew  in  the 
face  of  Providence,  as  they  thought,  by  venturing  to  the 
outermost  point  to  carry  out  their  work,  they  shuddered. 
In  fact,  they  never  became  accustomed  to  that  traveller. 
Why  it  did  not  capsize  exceeded  their  comprehension. 

The  American  workmen  were  assisted  in  their  operations 
by  350  natives  brought  from  other  parts  of  the  country,  and 
who  were  accustomed  somewhat  to  bridge-building.  Once 
work  was  brought  into  swing,  it  went  forward  with  a  rush, 
the  steel  towers  springing  up  from  their  pedestals  to  a 
height  of  200  feet  or  so  within  two  or  three  days.  The  men 
toiled  9!  hours  every  day,  and  there  was  not  a  halt  except 
when  the  monsoon  blew  and  it  was  well-nigh  impossible 
to  secure  a  foothold  in  exposed  positions,  or  when  the 
torrential  rainfall  prevailed. 

The  white  men  found  the  heat  particularly  trying  and 
exhausting.  Those  perched  200  or  300  feet  in  the  air,  and 
fully  exposed  to  the  sun  and  a  temperature  of  120  degrees, 
secured  a  little  welcome  shade  under  an  awning  that  was 
stretched  over  the  apparatus.  They  wore  the  lightest  of 


258    RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

clothing,  while  white  pith  helmets  served  to  offer  some 
protection  from  sunstroke. 

The  total  length  of  the  work  is  2,260  feet,  and  it  is  built 
up  to  10  spans,  each  measuring  120  feet,  and  7  spans 
of  60  feet  apiece.  The  girders  forming  the  deck  are  sup- 
ported on  steel  towers  spaced  40  feet  apart.  The  height 
of  the  rails  at  the  highest  pier  is  325  feet  above  the  floor 
of  the  gorge,  and  825  feet  above  the  Chungzoune  stream. 
No  less  than  232,868  separate  pieces  of  steel  had  to  be 
handled  on  the  site,  and  the  natives  had  to  drive  200,000 
rivets  to  secure  the  fabric  together. 

Owing  to  the  remote  point  at  which  work  was  being 
carried  out — 10,000  miles  by  sea  from  home — an  elaborate 
cable  code  was  drawn  up,  each  integral  part  of  the  viaduct, 
as  well  as  details  of  the  erecting  plant,  having  a  distinctive 
word.  In  addition,  there  were  special  words  for  the  pur- 
pose of  reporting  the  progress  of  the  erection  to  head- 
quarters. Every  week  the  chief  engineer  cabled  home  a 
full  progress  report  at  a  cost  of  55.,  or  $1.25,  per  word. 
The  men  were  provided  with  a  well-equipped  medicine 
chest,  and  a  complete  photographic  outfit  constituted  an 
important  part  of  the  organisation,  photographs  being 
dispatched  to  Steelton  regularly  to  supplement  the  cabled 
and  written  report  on  the  progress  of  the  undertaking. 
Only  one  man  was  lost  in  the  enterprise,  and  this  was 
attributable  to  fever  produced  from  indulgence  in  alcoholic 
liquor.  No  other  fatality  was  recorded  either  among  the 
natives  or  Americans,  and  no  serious  accident  marred 
the  work,  which,  bearing  in  mind  its  magnitude  and 
character,  was  highly  satisfactory. 

The  actual  erection  occupied  nine  months,  work  being 
continued  uninterruptedly  through  the  wet  season,  when, 
fortunately,  the  greater  part  of  the  annual  150  to  200  inches 
of  rain  fell  during  the  night.  Although  the  viaduct  is 
24^  feet  wide  across  the  top,  which  is  sufficient  to  carry  a 
double  track,  only  one  road  is  laid  at  present.  The  bridge 
also  enables  pedestrians  to  cross  from  one  side  of  the  chasm 
to  the  other,  refuge  platforms  being  provided  at  frequent 


LAND  OF  REMARKABLE  RAILWAY  BRIDGES    259 

intervals  to  enable  those  afoot  to  escape  being  run  down  by 
passing  trains.  Upon  completion,  the  structure  was  sub- 
jected to  severe  tests  spread  over  a  period  of  two  months, 
and  these  proving  satisfactory,  the  structure  was  accepted 
by  the  railway  authorities.  The  mammoth  steel  traveller 
weighing  100  tons,  and  which  had  played  such  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  rapid  erection  of  the  viaduct,  was 
demolished  and  sold  for  scrap. 

By  the  provision  of  this  viaduct  at  the  selected  height 
the  track  is  led  to  a  natural  ledge  on  the  opposite  cliff -face. 
While  the  viaduct  was  under  construction  the  railhead  was 
pushed  forward,  the  material  for  the  grade  being  trans- 
ported across  the  valley  by  the  overhead  cable.  By  the 
time  trains  were  able  to  cross  the  structure,  the  end  of  steel 
had  reached  a  point  some  35  miles  beyond. 

Although  the  viaduct  is  not  so  lofty  as  other  structures 
of  its  class  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  yet  it  occupies  a 
position  of  distinct  importance.  Moreover,  it  constitutes 
one  of  the  finest  expressions  of  this  class  of  American  work 
that  has  ever  been  fulfilled. 


S2 


CHAPTER   XXI 

WHERE   THE   SNOW-PLOUGH   WORKS    IN    SUMMER 

THE  Scandinavian  peninsula  has  been  the  battle-ground 
of  many  titanic  struggles  on  behalf  of  the  railway.  In  this 
country  the  iron  horse  has  forced  its  way  to  the  most 
northerly  point  in  the  world  where  the  shriek  of  a  loco- 
motive whistle  may  be  heard.  This  is  Ofoten,  a  port  on 
the  Atlantic  seaboard  of  Norway,  beyond  the  68th  parallel, 
and  well  into  the  Arctic  circle,  where  the  famous  iron  mines 
of  Gellivare  in  Sweden  find  a  western  point  for  shipping 
the  ore. 

It  was  in  Sweden  that  steel  was  pressed  into  service  for 
the  first  time  in  connection  with  the  erection  of  bridges 
by  the  late  Major  C.  Adelskold,  R.E.,  and  Member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences.  This  was  so  far  back  as  1866,  and 
the  daring  engineer  designed,  superintended  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  metal,  and  also  the  erection  of  the  bridge.  The 
claim  of  being  the  first  steel  bridge  has  been  advanced  on 
behalf  of  other  structures  in  different  parts  of  the  world, 
but  the  records  are  against  all  such  statements,  for  they 
were  anticipated  by  a  decade  at  least  in  a  convincing, 
practical  manner. 

Major  Adelskold's  bridge  is  highly  interesting,  not  only 
from  the  historical  point  of  view,  but  because  of  its  unusual 
design,  and  the  methods  adopted  in  its  erection.  Through 
the  courtesy  of  Madam  Gustafva  Adelskold,  I  am  enabled 
to  give  the  following  particulars  of  its  evolution  and 
construction. 

The  bridge  was  designed  to  carry  the  Uddevalla-Weners- 
borg-Herljunga  railway  across  the  Huvudnas  Falls,  just 
above  the  Trollhatten  Falls.  At  this  point  the  Gota  River 
forces  its  way  through  a  gorge  137^  feet  wide,  just  above 
a  fall  over  a  lofty  ledge  of  rock.  The  depth  and  velocity 

260 


THE   SNOW-PLOUGH   IN    SUMMER          261 

of  the  water  prevented  any  intermediate  pier  being  erected 
in  the  waterway,  so  in  order  to  span  the  gap  it  was  neces- 
sary to  lift  the  girders  bodily  to  set  them  into  position.  To 
enable  this  end  to  be  achieved  it  was  imperative  that  the 
main  girders  should  be  as  light  as  possible.  An  iron 
girder,  which  was  the  metal  in  exclusive  vogue  at  that 
time  for  this  work,  153  feet  in  length  by  12  inches  wide,  of 
the  requisite  strength,  would  have  weighed  over  700  tons, 
and  to  have  handled  such  a  weight  would  have  demanded 
expensive  and  elaborate  erecting  tackle. 

Major  Adelskold  consequently  rejected  iron  as  the  struc- 
tural material  in  favour  of  light  steel  girders.  Once  these 
were  set  he  anticipated  no  further  hindrance  to  completing 
the  structure  as  a  "suspension  bridge."  Up  to  this  time 
steel  girders  never  had  been  employed  in  such  work,  and 
the  engineer,  when  he  revealed  his  intentions,  was  urged 
by  experts  and  fellow-craftsmen  not  to  use  "such  a  brittle 
and  untrustworthy  material"  for  so  long  a  span. 

Major  Adelskold,  however,  was  convinced  of  the  sound- 
ness of  his  proposal,  and  consequently  continued  his  efforts 
in  the  face  of  spirited  opposition.  The  bridge  was  built  at 
Bergsund,  and  the  dimensions  were  calculated  for  a  strain 
of  8  tons  per  square  inch,  though  the  metal  was  tested  to 
twice  that  stress  before  being  set  in  position.  The  total 
weight  was  only  50  tons. 

From  the  engineering  point  of  view7  the  design  is  con- 
sidered somewhat  novel,  for  it  bears  no  resemblance  to  the 
general  conception  of  a  suspension  bridge.  It  is  an  in- 
verted structure  of  this  class.  The  upper  members  act 
merely  as  struts  to  keep  apart  the  ends  of  the  chains  below, 
which  really  carry  the  load  through  the  medium  of  the 
triangular  members. 

The  method  by  which  the  structure  was  erected  was  quite 
as  interesting  as  the  design  of  the  bridge  itself.  The 
girders  were  brought  to  the  western  bank  of  the  river.  To 
swing  them  into  position  a  derrick  was  rigged  up  on  either 
bank  so  as  to  overhang  the  water.  The  outer  ends  of  these 
masts,  which  measured  60  feet  in  length,  were  fitted  with 


Z62    RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

heavy  pulleys,  over  which  ropes  were  passed  and  carried 
from  capstans  installed  for  hauling  purposes.  The  pulley 
ropes  on  the  eastern  bank  were  pulled  across  the  waterway 
and  secured  to  one  end  of  the  girder,  while  the  western 
bank  pulley  ropes  were  secured  to  the  other  end  of  the  steel 
member,  which  measured  153  feet  in  length.  In  this  way 
the  girder  was  lifted,  swung  over  the  water,  and  lowered 
into  position.  The  event  was  regarded  as  so  unusual  that 
crowds  of  people  from  Gothenburg  and  Trollhatten 
assembled  on  the  banks  to  witness  the  setting  of  the  steel 
on  February  8,  1866. 

Owing  to  the  roar  of  the  waters,  the  engineer  could  not 
make  his  voice  heard,  so  orders  were  communicated  across 
the  river  in  Morse  code  by  hand-signalling.  The  first 
girder  was  lifted  and  set  in  position  in  thirty  minutes,  while 
the  second  was  handled  in  half  that  time.  Once  the  girders 
were  set  it  was  an  easy  matter  to  complete  the  remainder 
of  the  structure. 

It  may  be  interesting  to  relate  that  the  total  cost  of  setting 
the  main  girders,  together  with  the  hire  of  the  tackle 
borrowed  from  a  Gothenburg  shipbuilding-yard,  and  in- 
cluding the  wages  of  the  men  assisting  in  the  task,  was 
only  ^25,  or  $125.  At  that  time  Major  Adelskold's  feat 
was  regarded  as  an  audacious  stroke  of  engineering,  but 
to-day  steel  is  the  exclusive  material  employed  in  the 
erection  of  bridges. 

Railway-building  in  these  twin  countries  has  been  at- 
tended always  with  grave  difficulties,  owing  to  the  rugged 
nature  of  the  country  and  the  extreme  hardness  of  the 
rock.  When  the  sea  is  left,  and  the  interior  plateau  is 
gained,  the  full  brunt  of  the  Arctic  weather  is  experienced, 
and  it  is  of  a  character  to  deter  the  most  intrepid  engineer. 

One  of  the  most  momentous  enterprises  that  has  been 
carried  to  fulfilment  in  this  northern  country  is  the  trans- 
Norwegian  railway,  whereby  Christiania  is  brought  into 
direct  communication  with  the  Atlantic  seaboard  at  Bergen. 
Owing  to  the  prodigious  difficulties  involved,  however,  it 
occupied  some  thirty  years  to  carry  the  scheme  through, 
although  the  line  is  only  306  miles  in  length. 


TRAIN    EMERGING    FROM    REINUNGA   TUNNEL,  5,217    FEET    LONG,    IN    DISTANCE, 
SHOWING   SNOWSCOOP-PLOUGH   ON    LOCOMOTIVE 


WHERE    THE    SNOWPLOUGH    WORKS   IN    SUMMER 


MYRDAL    STATION,    SHOWING    ENTRANCE    TO    GRAVEHALS    TUNNEL, 
17,420    FEET    IN    LENGTH 


MYRDAL   STATION    IN    WINTER,    SHOWING    DEPTH    OF    SNOWFALL 

THE   BERGEN    RAILWAY 


THE   SNOW-PLOUGH   IN   SUMMER          263 

In  1870,  commercial  interests  petitioned  for  the  establish- 
ment of  a  shorter  route  between  the  east  coast  and  the  Nor- 
wegian capital.  Surveyors,  therefore,  were  deputed  to  in- 
vestigate the  interior  and  to  ascertain  the  practicability  of 
building  such  a  railway.  After  infinite  labour  the  en- 
gineers reported  favourably  upon  the  project,  but  pointed 
out  that  the  work  would  be  unprecedentedly  arduous,  and 
would  be  highly  expensive. 

For  five  years  the  scheme  lay  dormant,  but  in  1875  the 
Government  decided  to  commence  the  enterprise,  with  a 
section  of  line  67^  miles  long,  connecting  the  seaboard  at 
Bergen  with  Vossevangen.  In  deference  to  views  prevail- 
ing at  the  time,  however,  the  narrow-  or  metre-gauge  was 
adopted,  and  in  1883  it  was  opened  for  traffic. 

Although  no  further  headway  was  made  with  the  con- 
tinuation of  the  main  scheme,  it  was  not  abandoned  by  any 
means.  A  mountain  barrier,  the  Dovrejelf  range,  barred 
the  way  to  the  interior.  Its  penetration  was  recognised  as 
one  demanding  great  skill,  for  the  peaks  are  precipitous, 
with  sides  dropping  into  valleys  so  narrow  as  to  be  mere 
defiles  on  the  sea  side  of  the  chain.  Apart  from  these 
physical  handicaps,  however,  the  rain-  and  snow-falls  upon 
the  highest  levels  were  found  to  be  tremendous,  and  it  was 
essential  that  elaborate  examination  should  be  made  con- 
cerning these  adverse  influences  before  the  location  was 
decided  definitely. 

A  cautious  policy  was  practised.  No  attempt  to  proceed 
beyond  Vossevangen  was  made  until  the  mountain  wall  had 
been  searched  through  and  through.  No  less  than  twelve 
alternative  routes  were  prepared  and  submitted  to  the 
Government.  These  demonstrated  the  conclusive  fact  that 
no  route  could  offer  avoidance  of  the  snow  and  rain.  The 
question  was  to  follow  a  location,  if  possible,  where  these 
drawbacks  were  emphasised  to  the  least  degree.  For  this 
purpose  several  meteorological  stations  were  established 
among  the  mountains  and  on  the  plateau  to  gather  exhaust- 
ive data  by  daily  observations. 

The  outcome  was  the  production  of  some  decidedly  start- 
ling facts,  even  to  those  who  were  convinced  of  the 


264    RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

extremely  inclement  conditions  prevailing  inland.  The 
observers  had  been  instructed  to  record  particularly  the 
maximum  fall  of  snow  during  twenty-four  hours,  the  depth 
of  the  snow  among  the  mountains  during  the  winter,  and 
the  effect  of  the  winds  which  swept  the  plateau  mercilessly 
during  the  latter  season.  It  was  found  that  snow  fell  every 
month  during  the  year  at  Fjeldberg,  even  June,  July  and 
August  not  being  free  from  such  visitations,  while  at 
another  point  the  snowfall  in  winter  aggregated  no  less 
than  ii  feet.  At  no  point  along  the  projected  location  of 
the  line  was  a  depth  of  less  than  8  feet  recorded,  while  the 
general  average  was  from  10  feet  to  14  feet. 

The  winds  were  found  to  drive  the  dry,  fleecy  flakes  before 
them  like  dust,  to  pile  up  huge  drifts  in  sheltered  places, 
running  up  to  i6J  feet  deep.  Some  of  these  drifts  remained 
throughout  the  summer,  and  were  found  to  be  of  respectable 
proportions.  The  sum  of  these  reports  presaged  the  fact 
that,  when  the  line  was  completed,  the  question  of  main- 
taining it  free  from  snow-blocks  would  demand  superhuman 
effort. 

At  last  the  Government  decided  to  proceed  with  the 
undertaking.  The  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the 
various  locations  had  been  weighed  diligently,  and  pro- 
moted the  decision  to  adopt  the  Gravehals  route.  The 
authorities  regarded  this  location  with  misgiving  in  the 
first  instance,  because  it  involved  the  piercing  of  a  tunnel 
17,420  feet  in  length,  at  an  elevation  of  2,818  feet.  Funds 
were  voted  to  build  the  next  section  from  Vossevangen  to 
Taugevand,  a  distance  of  47  miles.  In  this  distance  the 
line  was  to  be  lifted  a  matter  of  4000  feet  to  the  highest 
point  to  be  attained  between  the  Atlantic  seaboard  and 
Christiania. 

The  route  selected  comprised  the  boring  of  no  less  than 
12  tunnels,  making  in  the  aggregate  not  less  than  iij 
miles,  of  which  the  Gravehals  tunnel  represented  over  3 
miles.  While  this  difficult  section  was  being  prosecuted, 
the  Government  resolved  to  come  to  a  definite  conclusion 
as  to  the  route  the  railway  should  follow  after  attaining  the 


THE   SNOW-PLOUGH   IN   SUMMER  265 

summit  at  Taugevand,  so  as  to  enable  operations  to  be 
continued  without  delay  when  the  latter  point  was  reached. 

The  exposed  position  of  the  Gravehals  tunnel  rendered 
the  work  exhausting  to  the  men.  As  the  timber  line  is 
about  2000  feet  below,  the  mountain-sides  are  quite  bare, 
and  there  is  no  protection  against  the  elements  whatever. 
The  work  is  the  longest  of  its  kind  in  Northern  Europe, 
and  has  proved  probably  one  of  the  most  exacting  to  con- 
struct. It  extends  through  granite  which  was  found  to  be 
exceedingly  tough,  so  that  boring  was  unavoidably  slow, 
especially  at  times  when  everything  appeared  to  be  pitted 
against  the  contractors. 

The  firm  who  accepted  the  contract  undertook  to  com- 
plete the  work  for  ,£158,400,  or  $792,000,  which  was  con- 
sidered to  be  a  very  low  price.  It  was  attacked  from  both 
ends,  and  mechanical  boring  was  adopted.  Convenient 
water  power  was  harnessed  to  drive  the  Brandt  rock  drills, 
which  worked  under  a  pressure  of  some  1,200  pounds  per 
square  inch.  Boring  proceeded  somewhat  slowly,  more  so, 
in  fact,  than  the  contractors  had  anticipated ;  but  this  was 
due  to  the  extreme  hardness  of  the  rock  encountered,  while 
the  work  was  handicapped  by  delays  which  the  contractors 
could  not  have  controlled.  In  the  first  place  labour  proved 
scarce  and  expensive.  The  men  working  on  the  coast, 
although  experienced  in  drilling  and  blasting  rock,  could 
not  be  persuaded  to  proceed  up-country  to  practise  their 
skill.  The  situation  was  too  remote,  and  the  elements  were 
too  bitter,  and  seeing  that  extensive  railway  construction 
was  proceeding  at  the  same  time  in  other  and  more  con- 
genial parts  of  the  country,  there  was  no  cogent  reason  why 
the  men  should  hie  to  an  inhospitable  locality  for  work. 

The  tunnel-borers,  however,  were  spared  the  tribulations 
which  have  assailed  their  colleagues  in  other  parts  of 
Europe.  Faults  in  the  rock  strata  were  very  few  and  far 
between,  while  subterranean  streams  and  pockets  of 
viscous  mud  did  not  overwhelm  them.  The  temperature 
within  the  boring,  moreover,  never  rose  to  an  intolerable 
point,  the  maximum  recorded  being  52°  Fahrenheit.  This 


266    RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

was  in  striking  contrast  to  the  conditions  on  the  Gotthard, 
Cenis,  Simplon,  and  other  central  European  tunnels,  where 
the  mercury  rose  at  times  to  the  vicinity  of  90  degrees. 

Yet  the  workers  in  the  Gravehals  tunnel  experienced 
their  own  peculiar  dangers  and  exasperating  misadventures. 
The  climatic  conditions  were  the  most  trying,  and  many 
men  abandoned  their  tasks  after  a  short  experience  in  this 
bleak  situation,  for  work  at  a  lower  level.  This  monotony 
was  varied  one  day  by  an  avalanche,  which  crashed  down 
the  mountain-side,  smashed  into  the  power-house  and 
carried  away  some  of  the  machinery.  Work  had  to  be  sus- 
pended for  some  six  weeks  while  the  damage  thus  caused 
was  repaired.  At  another  time  work  could  not  be  carried 
forward  because  no  water  was  available,  and  about  two 
months  of  enforced  idleness  had  to  be  endured  until  the 
turbines  could  be  set  going  once  more. 

On  the  same  section  is  another  heavy  piece  of  work  of 
this  character,  the  Reinunga  tunnel,  extending  for  5,217 
feet  through  a  massive  mountain  shoulder.  Here  the 
country  is  extremely  wild,  and  the  location  of  the  line 
taxed  the  plotters  supremely.  The  track  crawls  along  a 
narrow  ledge  for  some  distance,  poised  nearly  500  feet 
above  the  highroad.  The  situation  is  precarious,  for  land- 
slides and  avalanches  are  of  frequent  occurrence,  while 
detached  boulders  rattle  down  the  slopes  at  times  and 
threaten  the  railway  with  extinction.  Fortunately,  as  the 
metals  are  laid  on  a  gallery  of  solid  rock  hewn  in  the 
mountain-side,  the  extent  of  the  damage  inflicted  by  these 
visitations  is  limited  to  the  permanent  way,  though  the 
presence  of  these  untoward  obstacles,  and  the  result  of  their 
impact  with  the  metals,  may  interrupt  communication  for  a 
short  time. 

Seeing  that  a  difference  in  level  of  over  4,100  feet  has  to 
be  overcome  in  the  47  miles  between  Vossevangen  and 
Taugevand,  it  is  a  teasing  up-hill  pull  all  the  way.  The 
grades  are  very  abrupt  at  places,  and  impose  a  severe  tax 
upon  the  locomotives.  The  passenger,  however,  has  one 
compensation  for  slowness  in  travel.  Some  of  the  grandest 


t  v> 


MULES    CARRYING   WATER    IN    BARRELS 


LOAD    OF    RAILWAY    METALS   ON    A   MULE  S    BACK 


THE   SNOW-PLOUGH   IN   SUMMER  267 

scenery  to  be  seen  on  the  European  continent  is  unfolded 
to  the  train  as  it  glides  in  and  out  among  the  mountain 
rifts,  and  consequently,  from  the  tourist  point  of  view,  the 
route  possesses  illimitable  attractions,  inasmuch  as  it  offers 
facilities  to  gain  some  of  the  most  beautiful  parts  of  the 
country,  which  hitherto  have  been  unapproachable,  except 
in  the  face  of  an  arduous  and  tedious  journey  by  primitive 
means  of  conveyance. 

After  crossing  the  summit  level  the  railway  commences 
an  easy  descent,  for  the  inland  plateau  is  gently  undulat- 
ing, and  the  valleys  being  wider,  the  surveyors  were 
assisted  appreciably  in  their  task  of  discovering  an  easy 
location.  The  downward  run  continues  until  Bromma,  205 
miles  west  of  Bergen,  is  gained  at  an  altitude  of  some  450 
feet.  Then  comes  another  rise  to  overcome  a  low  range, 
which  is  accomplished  through  a  tunnel  7,644  feet  in 
length. 

This  tunnel  proved  a  more  exacting  and  troublesome 
undertaking  than  either  the  Gravehals  or  Reinunga  works. 
The  boring  was  attempted  at  first  on  the  time  system,  but 
the  advance  was  so  slow  and  unsatisfactory  that  this  prin- 
ciple was  abandoned.  The  whole  tunnel  was  then  handed 
over  to  a  contractor,  but  he  found  the  rock  so  hard  that  a 
piece-work  system  was  instituted.  In  this  arrangement  the 
workmen  were  stimulated  to  supreme  effort  by  the  offer  of 
tempting  premiums.  Issuing  from  this  tunnel,  there  is 
another  descent  for  some  miles,  when  another  ridge  inter- 
venes, necessitating  a  sharp  climb  of  700  feet,  followed  by 
a  smart  downward  run  to  Roa,  where  a  junction  is  effected 
with  the  Norwegian  eastern  railway  system. 

Contemporaneously  with  the  building  of  this  line  between 
Vossevangen  and  Roa,  the  original  section  between  Bergen 
and  Vossevangen  had  to  be  overhauled.  The  metre  gauge 
was  in  vogue  upon  this  division,  whereas  the  rest  of  the 
line  was  being  built  on  the  standard  gauge  to  secure  uni- 
formity with  the  other  lines.  Accordingly,  the  narrow- 
gauge  was  replaced  by  standard-gauge  track. 

The  Bergen-Christiania  line  ranks  as  one  of  the  most 


268     RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

striking  pieces  of  railway  engineering  in  Europe,  and  testi- 
fies to  the  remarkable  skill  and  dogged  perseverance  of  the 
Scandinavians  in  breaking  down  tremendous  obstacles  as 
they  arose,  with  complete  success.  It  is  no  light  under- 
taking to  attempt  such  an  enterprise  as  this  in  such  a  lati- 
tude across  a  terribly  exposed,  storm-swept  plateau,  among 
the  most  sparsely  populated  regions  of  Europe,  and  where 
the  winter  lasts  for  eight  or  nine  months.  The  rainfall  is 
tropical  in  its  severity,  while  the  storms  are  of  terrific  fury, 
as  the  workmen  found  to  their  cost. 

Some  idea  of  the  magnitude  of  the  work  consummated 
by  the  engineers  may  be  gathered  from  a  few  general 
details.  The  line  passes  through  no  less  than  184  tunnels, 
which  represent  an  aggregate  length  of  nearly  24  miles. 
To  carry  the  line  across  depressions  which  could  not  be 
filled,  14  bridges,  ranging  from  a  single-span  stone  struc- 
ture of  60  feet  to  a  metal  bridge  566  feet  from  end  to  end, 
had  to  be  built.  Between  the  two  terminal  points  55 
stations  and  stopping-places  have  been  provided.  In  order 
to  fashion  the  permanent  way  the  engineers  had  to  excavate 
about  35,000,000  cubic  feet  of  earth,  and  nearly  30,000,000 
cubic  feet  of  rock  on  the  highest  parts  of  the  mountain 
section,  this  latter  task  being  assisted  by  the  expenditure 
of  over  1,800,000  pounds  of  dynamite. 

The  anticipated  task  of  maintaining  communication, 
especially  on  the  higher  and  more  exposed  sections  of  the 
railway,  has  been  appreciated  to  the  full.  To  deal  with  the 
snow  three  powerful  rotary  ploughs  have  been  acquired, 
and  one  is  kept  in  constant  readiness.  It  is  no  unusual 
circumstance  for  this  equipment  to  be  called  out  in  the 
middle  of  summer  to  cope  with  a  block  in  one  of  the  deep 
cuttings.  The  drift  is  a  danger  against  which  especial 
attention  has  to  be  devoted,  for  the  wind  catches  up  the 
fine,  dry  flakes  and  whirls  them  in  clouds  across  the 
country.  To  prevent  this  being  deposited  upon  the  line, 
and  thus  obstructing  traffic,  timber  screens  have  been 
erected  beside  the  line,  this  defence  continuing  in  an  almost 
unbroken  line  for  60  miles  between  Mjolfjeld  and  Gjeilo. 


THE   SNOW-PLOUGH   IN   SUMMER  269 

The  provision  of  the  line,  however,  is  of  far-reaching 
importance  to  the  commercial  interests  of  Norway.  For- 
merly, 54  hours  were  required  to  travel  between  Christiania 
and  Bergen,  but  now,  by  cutting  almost  straight  across  the 
peninsula,  the  journey  can  be  covered  in  14  hours.  To 
forge  the  link  of  215  miles  between  Vossevangen  and  Roa, 
to  complete  this  undertaking,  occupied  ten  years,  and  the 
^3,333,000,  or  $16,665,000,  expended  upon  the  enterprise 
is  considered  an  excellent  investment  for  the  country. 


CHAPTER    XXII 

FROM  BUENOS  AIRES  TO  VALPARAISO  OVERLAND 

THOUGH  Meiggs  was  denied  the  glory  of  having  built  the 
first  South  American  trans-continental  railway,  yet  the  idea 
has  been  carried  to  fruition,  but  at  a  point  much  farther 
south  than  he  contemplated.  Again,  whereas  the  audacious 
Philadelphia!!  engineer  proposed  only  to  establish  his 
Atlantic  terminus  on  the  upper  reaches  of  the  Amazon,  the 
completed  line  runs  down  to  the  water's  edge  on  either 
coast,  the  two  opposite  ports  connected  in  this  manner 
being  Buenos  Aires  on  the  Atlantic,  and  Valparaiso  on 
the  Pacific,  coasts. 

The  Trans-andine  railway  itself,  which  completes  this 
connection,  however,  only  extends  from  Mendoza  at  the  foot 
of  the  mountain  chain  on  the  Argentine  side,  to  Los  Andes 
on  the  Chilian  slopes  of  the  range.  These  two  points  are 
156  miles  apart,  but  the  metals  had  to  be  lifted  11,500  feet 
into  the  air  to  bring  them  together. 

When  it  was  decided  to  connect  Mendoza  and  Los  Andes 
together  in  this  manner,  the  first-named  town  was  in  direct 
touch  with  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  the  Buenos  Aires  & 
Pacific  railway  having  thrown  its  meshes  inland  to  the  foot 
of  the  mountains.  This  was  not  a  difficult  matter,  owing 
to  the  flatness  of  the  country,  pampas  plains  for  the  most 
part  prevailing.  The  result  is  that  in  the  climb  from 
Buenos  Aires  to  Mendoza  only  2,470  feet  has  to  be  over- 
come in  650  miles.  Consequently,  the  gradients  are  sc 
slight  as  to  be  practically  imperceptible.  Indeed,  so  simple 
was  construction  that  it  was  found  possible  to  lay  the  metals 
in  an  absolutely  straight  line  for  no  less  than  210  miles— 
the  longest  stretch  of  " straight"  line  in  the  world. 

It  was  in  1886  that  the  first  preliminaries  in  the  actual 

270 


BUENOS  AIRES  TO  VALPARAISO  OVERLAND    271 

construction  of  this  final  link  in  the  coast-to-coast  railway 
was  made.  The  surveys  showed  the  feasibility  of  the 
scheme,  though  it  was  pointed  out  that  to  climb  over  the 
Andes  would  entail  work  of  a  peculiar  character,  and  that 
the  cost  would  be  tremendous.  The  critical  point  was  the 
negotiation  of  the  summit  itself,  for  the  mountain  pass  is 
at  an  altitude  of  12,796  feet.  Though  commenced  in  1886, 
the  scheme  experienced  many  changes  of  fortune  which 
hindered  construction  time  after  time.  Financial  and 
labour  troubles  were  the  two  most  retarding  factors.  By 
1891  only  57J  miles  were  open  to  traffic;  four  years  later 
only  witnessed  the  passing  of  the  9Oth  milestone.  Such 
slow  progress  was  deplorable  in  comparison  with  the  build- 
ing of  the  Oroya  and  Mollendo  railways. 

Then  came  a  delay  of  four  years,  but  in  1899  work  was 
resumed  and  was  pushed  forward  to  completion.  On  the 
Chilian  side,  owing  to  similar  troubles,  construction  was 
possible  only  in  spurts,  and  even  when  the  financial  details 
were  adjusted  satisfactorily,  the  scarcity  of  labour  remained 
a  thorny  problem. 

The  surveys  showed  that  the  most  practical  route  west- 
wards from  Mendoza  was  by  following  the  course  of  the 
river  of  that  name  right  into  the  mountain  range.  In  this 
manner  extensive  blasting  and  heavy  cutting  could  be 
avoided,  except  where  the  mountain-sides  dropped  abruptly 
into  the  river,  and  then  these  would  have  to  be  tunnelled. 

The  constructional  engineers  followed  this  location,  but 
only  to  run  full-tilt  into  another  difficulty  which  had  not 
been  foreseen.  The  Mendoza  is  a  South  American  replica 
of  China's  ill-fated  Hoang-ho.  In  the  low  season  its  placid 
waters  roll  leisurely  to  the  ocean,  but  when  it  is  swollen  by 
the  melting  snows  it  tears  along  with  fiendish  velocity.  As 
its  banks  are  composed  only  of  the  soft  alluvium  brought 
down  from  the  mountains,  the  foaming  waters  do  not  find 
this  a  very  difficult  obstacle,  and  accordingly  carry  it  away 
in  tremendous  quantities.  As  a  result,  the  river  is  for  ever 
changing  its  channel. 

To    the    railway    engineers    such    eccentricities    proved 


272     RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

serious  factors.  They  realised  speedily  that  here  was  a 
situation  peculiarly  exasperating,  for  long  lengths  of  track 
were  swept  away  bodily  time  after  time.  It  never  could  be 
anticipated  where  the  turbulent  water  would  break  its 
bounds  next.  A  stretch  of  permanent  way,  left  safe  and 
sound  in  the  morning,  sometimes  was  wiped  out  of  exist- 
ence before  nightfall.  All  that  could  be  seen  of  the  work 
possibly  was  the  rails  dipping  into  the  water  on  one  bank 
and  reappearing  on  the  other,  the  intervening  section 
describing  a  graceful  festoon  in  the  depths  of  the  muddy 
torrent.  At  times  the  waters  were  more  freakish.  They 
would  burst  upon  the  track  with  such  violence  as  to  wrench 
the  metals  apart;  then  only  the  jagged,  twisted  ends  jutting 
mournfully  into  the  air  on  either  side  of  the  new  river 
channel  were  the  sole  remnants  of  the  track. 

The  engineers  tried  innumerable  expedients  to  preserve 
the  line  from  these  erratic  attacks,  but  without  any  material 
success  for  some  time.  At  last  they  decided  to  provide  the 
river  with  an  artificial  embankment,  and  to  lay  the  track 
well  back  from  the  waterway.  Trainloads  of  huge  masses 
of  stone  were  brought  to  the  vulnerable  points  and  pitched 
at  the  foot  of  the  embankment,  which  was  raised  to  a  height 
well  above  flood-level.  Thousands  of  tons  of  stone  were 
dumped  in  this  manner,  and  it  was  found  that  it  afforded 
complete  protection,  because  the  water  could  not  dislodge 
the  masonry  pitching  to  eat  its  way  into  the  soft  earth 
beneath.  The  artificial  dyke  solved  the  problem  of  how  to 
keep  the  rushing,  boisterous  Mendoza  within  bounds. 

Avalanches  and  snowslides  were  another  constant 
menace.  Their  accustomed  paths  had  to  be  noted  carefully 
and  then  studiously  given  a  wide  berth.  These  convul- 
sions are  of  impressive  severity  in  the  Andes,  and  the 
impetus  the  slides  gain,  owing  to  the  steepness  and  length 
of  the  declivities  down  which  they  tumble,  imparts  terrific 
force  to  them.  When  a  slender  railway  stands  in  their 
path  it  is  caught  up  like  straw  and  scattered  in  all  direc- 
tions. Possibly  the  landslides  are  more  to  be  dreaded 
than  the  movements  of  the  snow.  In  the  Andes  the  denud- 


BUENOS  AIRES  TO  VALPARAISO  OVERLAND     273 

ing  forces  of  Nature  are  exceptionally  heavy.  Many  a 
mountain  slope  which,  from  a  cursory  inspection,  looks 
substantial  and  solid,  upon  closer  investigation  proves  to 
be  merely  a  thick  layer,  perhaps  many  feet  in  thickness,  of 
soft  detritus.  The  slightest  vibration  is  sufficient  to  set  the 
mass  in  motion,  and  it  slides  slowly  and  irresistibly  down- 
wards. At  some  places  it  was  found  impossible  to  avoid 
such  unstable  ground,  so  the  engineers  ingeniously  cut  a 
passage  through  the  soft  rubble,  taking  care  to  reach  the 
solid  mountain  flank  beneath  upon  which  to  build  the  track, 
while  the  detritus  was  held  back  by  means  of  massive 
concrete  masonry  walls. 

Under  such  circumstances  it  is  imperative  that  the  track 
should  be  of  the  most  solid  character,  if  it  is  designed  to 
fulfil  the  conditions  of  a  trunk  highway.  The  road  bed  is 
well  built,  laid  with  metals  to  a  metre-gauge,  and  ballasted 
heavily.  All  earthworks  are  carried  out  on  liberal  lines, 
and  the  bridges  are  built  throughout  of  steel. 

When  the  main  range  is  gained  the  line  becomes  more 
devious,  the  banks  are  sharper  and  more  numerous,  the 
short  tunnels  and  the  bridges  across  the  rivers  more  fre- 
quent, for  the  location  caused  the  line  to  swing  from  bank 
to  bank  as  being  more  economical  construction  than  to 
blast  and  carve  a  way  for  the  line  through  the  solid  rock 
of  the  cliffs.  At  places  the  rises  became  so  abrupt  as  to 
defy  operation  by  adhesion.  Then  short  lengths  of  rack 
where  cog-wheels  on  the  locomotive  mesh  with  a  toothed 
rail  laid  between  the  ordinary  rails,  and  working  similar 
to  a  rack  and  pinion,  had  to  be  inserted  to  enable  the  train 
to  climb  upwards. 

A  striking  evidence  of  the  distance  saved  by  the  railway 
is  afforded  between  Mendoza  and  Upsallata  station.  As  the 
crow  flies  the  distance  is  40  miles  due  east;  by  rail  it  is 
17  miles  farther;  but  by  the  old  mountain  road  which  con- 
verges upon  the  line  at  Upsallata  it  is  no  less  than  100 
miles  !  The  latter  makes  a  wide,  sweeping  detour  after 
leaving  Mendoza  in  order  to  avoid  the  foot-hills,  and  to 
ensure  an  easy  gradient  for  animal  traffic. 

T 


274    RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

The  wildest  part  of  the  range  is  encountered  when  the 
Mendoza  River  is  left  and  the  railway  enters  the  Amarillo, 
or  Yellow  Gorge.  Incidentally,  the  line  through  this  rift 
was  one  of  the  most  costly  and  difficult  sections  to  build. 
Las  Cuevas,  at  an  altitude  of  10,388  feet,  was  the  objective, 
and  so  great  is  the  difference  in  level  within  a  few  miles 
that  some  daring  development  work  had  to  be  carried  out. 
The  first  sign  of  this  steep  climb  is  a  Meiggs  V-switch. 
The  rack  was  adopted  more  extensively,  this  being  intro- 
duced between  short  stretches  of  easier  grade  or  sections 
of  level,  so  that  the  railway  really  ascends  in  the  form  of  a 
series  of  gigantic  steps.  The  rack  is  of  the  three-toothed 
type  similar  to  that  so  familiar  on  the  Swiss  mountain 
railways. 

In  winding  through  the  gorge  some  of  the  most  im- 
pressive vistas  of  Andine  majesty  are  unfolded.  There  is 
the  snow-capped  crest  of  Aconcagua,  beetling  23,500  feet  to 
the  sky,  Tupungato  21,451  feet,  Tolosa  19,000  feet,  and 
many  another  white-hooded  mountain  giant.  The  Trans- 
andine  ranks  as  one  of  the  greatest  scenic  railways  in  the 
world,  for  it  unlocked  the  door  to  what  previously  was 
regarded  as  one  of  the  most  inaccessible  sight-seeing 
centres  on  this  globe.  Already  its  station  at  Inca  has  de- 
veloped into  a  popular  mountaineering  rendezvous,  whence 
the  ambitious  essay  to  scale  the  caps  of  the  Cordilleras. 
Some  idea  of  the  stupendous  character  of  the  railway's 
ascent  in  this  region  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that 
in  the  last  8  miles  to  Las  Cuevas  it  rises  no  less  than 
1,414  feet,  and  at  this  latter  station  the  track  lies  nearly 
2  miles  above  the  Atlantic. 

Las  Cuevas  is  at  the  foot  of  the  summit  ridge  which  is 
pierced  by  the  tunnel  carrying  the  railway  into  Chile.  This 
part  of  the  work  proved  the  most  trying,  for  it  involved 
wrestling  with  innumerable  difficulties  of  great  magnitude 
and  peculiar  character,  such  as  are  experienced  very  seldom 
in  tunnelling  operations.  Though  the  range  is  not  pierced 
at  such  an  altitude  as  by  the  famous  Galera  -tunnel  in  the 
country  next  door,  yet  it  is  three  times  as  long. 


BUENOS  AIRES  TO  VALPARAISO  OVERLAND    275 

The  engineers  had  to  drill,  blast  and  excavate  their  way 
through  the  rock  of  the  ridge  for  10,000  feet — nearly  two 
miles — and  at  times  the  obstacles  that  loomed  up  suddenly 
proved  extremely  perplexing.  The  completion  of  this  work 
delayed  the  opening  of  the  railway  considerably,  for 
calculations  and  anticipations  were  upset  rudely  when 
excavation  commenced. 

Some  time  passed  before  the  precise  design  of  the  tunnel 
could  be  settled.  At  first  it  was  decided  to  describe  a  spiral 
in  the  peak  so  as  to  accommodate  the  level  of  the  Argentine 
division  with  that  of  the  Chile  section  of  the  line.  The 
tunnel  was  to  be  driven  from  either  end  by  the  engineers 
of  the  respective  railways,  which  were  two  distinct  under- 
takings. The  two  armies  were  to  meet  at  mid-tunnel  imme- 
diately beneath  the  famous  statue  of  Christo  Redentor, 
commemorating  the  treaty  of  peace  between  Argentina  and 
Chile,  which  stands  upon  the  boundary  line  of  the  two 
countries  in  the  pass  above. 

On  the  Argentine  side  the  camps  for  the  tunnel  works 
were  established  at  Las  Cuevas,  about  ij  miles  below  the 
portal.  When  boring  was  commenced  the  engineers'  ad- 
vance was  threatened.  The  depth  of  the  loose,  friable  earth 
eroded  from  the  peaks  above,  which  had  accumulated 
during  the  flight  of  centuries,  proved  much  greater  than 
was  supposed.  This  entailed  most  elaborate  timbering  to 
prevent  the  roof  caving  in  and  burying  the  excavators.  As 
all  lumber  had  to  be  brought  up  from  Mendoza,  for  this 
desolate  region  is  far  above  the  timber  line,  heavy  delays 
arose  pending  the  arrival  of  the  wood.  Then  they  had  to 
move  forward  warily  foot  by  foot,  as  the  detritus  proved 
treacherous  to  handle.  The  engineers  ploughed  their  way 
through  this  material  for  300  feet,  and  felt  relieved  when 
at  last  they  struck  solid  rock,  which  they  rightly  thought 
was  the  main  body  of  the  mountain.  Elaborate  arrange- 
ments were  made  to  drive  ahead  more  rapidly,  but  when 
the  mass  had  been  penetrated  for  nearly  200  feet  the 
engineers  received  another  rude  shock.  The  rock  was 
false.  What  they  had  fondly  thought  to  be  the  mountain 

T  2 


276     RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF    THE    WORLD 

itself  was  merely  a  huge  crag  which  had  become  detached 
and  had  slipped  down  bodily. 

Here  was  a  critical  dilemma.  The  work  was  far  too  risky 
for  aught  but  expert  tunnel-builders — engineers  who  had 
made  a  speciality  of  such  undertakings,  and  who  were  pos- 
sessed of  competent  ability  and  facilities  to  cope  successfully 
with  any  contingency  likely  to  develop.  As  a  result  of 
careful  deliberations  it  was  decided  to  hand  the  whole 
tunnel — lock,  stock  and  barrel,  from  end  to  end — to  one 
firm.  Selection  fell  upon  the  British  engineers,  Messrs. 
C.  H.  Walker  &  Company,  who  rescued  the  famous 
Severn  tunnel  from  flood,  and  successfully  completed  it  in 
the  face  of  unheard-of  difficulties. 

These  engineers  at  once  attacked  the  problem  boldly.  It 
was  found  that  the  false  rock  on  the  Argentine  side  ex- 
tended for  no  less  than  i  ,670  feet,  so  that  it  must  have  been 
a  most  violent  shiver  of  Nature,  indeed,  which  let  loose 
that  mountain  spur.  The  situation,  however,  was  grasped 
so  completely  that  within  two  years  the  range  was  pierced. 

Yet  it  was  not  so  much  the  engineering  difficulties  that 
this  firm  feared  when  they  essayed  the  task,  but  the  altitude 
at  which  it  had  to  be  accomplished.  Again,  there  were 
difficulties  incidental  to  transport,  and  the  situations  of  the 
workings  so  far  from  any  base.  These  were  very  great. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  during  the  winter  months — 
that  is,  from  April  to  October— the  tunnel  workings  and 
camps  were  cut  off  practically  from  the  outside  world.  To 
plan  one's  arrangements  during  the  short  summer  so  that 
when  isolated  there  was  no  lack  of  material,  food  for  the 
workmen,  housing  accommodation,  as  well  as  provision 
made  for  a  thousand-and-one  other  details  which  were 
bound  to  arise,  demanded  considerable  foresight,  for  work 
had  to  be  maintained  as  steadily  during  the  winter  snows 
as  under  the  summer  sun. 

It  is  not  every  workman  who  will  volunteer,  or  is  physic- 
ally capable,  to  brave  the  dangers  attending  the  wielding 
of  pick,  shovel,  wheelbarrow  and  explosives  in  the  rarefied 
atmosphere  and  the  adverse  climatic  conditions  prevailing 


BUENOS  AIRES  TO  VALPARAISO  OVERLAND    277 

in  winter  among  the  highest  altitudes  of  the  Andes.  The 
cold  is  intense,  the  snowfall  is  tremendous,  and  the  winds 
rage  with  terrific  fury.  The  frozen  snow  and  ice  are  driven 
like  sand  in  all  directions,  and  with  such  force  that  they 
cut  like  a  knife,  and  penetrate  every  crevice. 

Labour,  indeed,  proved  a  wearisome  difficulty.  Chilians 
figured  most  prominently  among  the  workmen,  and  they 
proved  to  be  very  good  labourers.  There  were  a  few 
Italians  among  them,  with  Englishmen  occupying  the 
controlling  positions.  At  each  end  of  the  tunnel  elaborate 
hospitals  were  erected  replete  with  competent  medical  at- 
tention, for  in  addition  to  accidents  there  were  the  innumer- 
able maladies  provoked  by  the  reduced  atmospheric 
pressure  which,  unless  skilfully  tended  in  the  incipient 
stages,  are  apt  to  develop  very  serious  symptoms.  Pneu- 
monia was  the  chief  cause  of  illness,  attributable  to  in- 
sufficient clothing  and  care  on  the  part  of  the  Chilians. 
But  after  all  is  said  and  done,  work  at  such  an  altitude 
is  terribly  exhausting  under  the  most  favourable  conditions. 

On  the  Chilian  side  the  constructional  work  was  more 
imposing  in  character.  It  is  only  46  miles  from  the  Pacific 
portal  of  the  tunnel  to  Los  Andes,  where  junction  is  effected 
with  the  State  railway  systems.  In  this  short  distance 
there  is  a  difference  of  some  8000  feet  in  levels,  and  the 
drop  in  the  first  7  miles  from  the  tunnel  mouth  is  no 
less  than  3,150  feet.  The  engineers  were  hard  pushed  to 
devise  ways  and  means  to  lay  the  track  so  that  it  could  be 
operated  by  the  usual  railway  methods.  Heavy  grades, 
ranging  from  6  to  8  per  cent.,  could  not  be  avoided  to 
communicate  each  successive  gallery  carrying  the  metals 
along  the  mountain  sides.  The  rack  had  to  be  resorted 
to  freely,  and  the  result  is  that  the  line  describes  a  remark- 
able zigzag  course,  strikingly  recalling  the  wonderful 
Stelvio  road  in  the  Tyrol. 

At  one  point  there  is  a  very  impressive  piece  of  engineer- 
ing. The  line  winds  along  the  hill-side  high  up  on  the 
bank  of  the  rushing  Aconcagua  River,  disappears  into  a 
tunnel  through  a  spur,  and  then  emerges  at  the  other  side 


278    RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

on  the  brink  of  a  narrow  chasm — the  Soldier's  Leap.  This 
is  a  mere  wedge-shaped  fissure  in  the  rock,  but  a  few  feet 
in  width,  and  through  which  the  river  tumbles  over  200 
feet  below.  A  narrow  bridge  carries  the  line  across  the 
rift  to  a  narrow  ledge  blasted  out  of  the  opposite  cliff-face 
where  the  mountains  overhang  the  water. 

The  resources  of  the  engineers  will  be  taxed  to  a  supreme 
degree  in  order  to  keep  the  line  clear  from  snow  during  the 
winter.  In  fact,  it  was  asserted  freely  that  for  about  six 
months  in  the  year  the  upper  levels  of  the  line  would  be 
well-nigh  impassable.  The  engineers  on  the  spot,  how- 
ever, have  risen  to  the  occasion.  They  have  studied  the 
massive  hills  of  snow  which,  lashed  into  furious  whirl- 
storms  by  the  hurricane  winds,  sweep  rapidly  and  irre- 
sistibly forward,  often  burying  the  railway  to  a  depth  of 
30  feet  or  more.  A  powerful  rotary  plough  was  placed 
in  service  to  tackle  this  obstacle,  and  although  found  highly 
successful  in  the  places  where  the  line  was  open,  it  could 
not  be  utilised  in  the  deep  cuttings.  Special  situations 
demand  special  methods.  So  the  engineers  set  to  work  to 
devise  their  own  means  of  combating  Boreas  in  his  wildest 
fury.  They  evolved  a  push-plough  of  a  special  wedge- 
shape  pattern  which  can  attack  a  1 6-foot  drift  and  cut  a 
channel  clean  through  it  with  ease.  The  trouble  is  not  so 
much  the  snow,  but  the  large  masses  of  rock  which  are 
rolled  down  the  mountain  sides,  and  lurk  in  the  white  mass. 
When  a  rotary  strikes  one  of  these  formidable  boulders 
when  running  at  full  speed,  the  auger-like  rotating 
mechanism  is  smashed  to  pieces,  and  the  whole  apparatus 
is  thrown  out  of  action.  With  the  special  push-plough, 
however,  no  such  disaster  is  to  be  feared.  The  nose  of 
the  apparatus  glides  over  the  concealed  obstruction  without 
suffering  any  damage  whatever,  and  the  boulder  can  be 
removed  by  manual  labour,  as  a  skilled  gang  of  snow- 
clearers  are  attached  to  every  snow-plough  train. 

A  new  line  is  approaching  completion  among  the  Andes 
which  compels  attention,  even  in  South  America,  the  land 
of  railway  wonders.  This  is  the  new  main  line  which  is 


BUENOS  AIRES  TO  VALPARAISO  OVERLAND     279 

to  connect  La  Paz,  the  capital  of  Bolivia,  with  the  coast. 
Hitherto,  in  order  to  gain  the  metropolis  of  the  interior 
land-locked  State,  one  has  had  to  embark  upon  a  circuitous 
journey  either  via  the  Antofagasta  railway  and  its  con- 
nections, or  by  means  of  the  Peruvian  Southern  railway 
from  Mollendo,  by  way  of  Lake  Titicaca  and  Puno. 

The  new  line  starts  from  the  coast  at  Arica  and  follows 
as  straight  a  line  to  La  Paz  as  the  configuration  of  the 
country  permits.  Trie  outstanding  feature  of  this  enter- 
prise is  the  extreme  altitude  at  which  it  lies  for  the  greater 
part  of  its  length,  this  ranging  between  12,000  and  14,000 
feet  above  the  Pacific.  Another  fact  is  that  the  summit  is 
not  overcome  by  a  tunnel,  but  the  line  passes  right  over 
the  crests.  The  line  measures  292  miles  in  length,  and  the 
sudden  rise  from  the  coast  into  the  mountain  country  is 
effected  by  means  of  the  toothed  rail  or  rack  system,  the 
aggregate  length  of  which  is  no  less  than  40  miles. 

Some  idea  of  the  conditions  that  confronted  the  railway- 
builders  was  afforded  in  the  course  of  the  surveys.  In 
many  places  the  engineers  had  to  blast  a  trail  out  of  the 
hard,  solid  rock  with  dynamite  in  order  to  advance.  There 
are  about  70  tunnels,  though  none  are  very  long,  for  the 
most  part  piercing  shoulders  and  spurs  of  the  main  range 
which  could  not  be  compassed  or  removed.  At  places  very 
heavy  bridging  is  essential,  the  spanning  of  one  gorge  in 
particular  having  presented  a  pretty  problem.  This  ravine 
is  150  feet  in  width,  and  is  crossed  in  a  single  span  150 
feet  above  the  raging  river. 

Here,  again,  the  extreme  rarefaction  of  the  atmosphere 
is  a  serious  disadvantage  against  which  the  engineers 
have  had  to  contend,  while  the  fluctuations  in  temperature 
are  extremely  great.  A  difference  of  113  degrees  in  the 
course  of  a  day  is  by  no  means  uncommon.  At  noon  the 
thermometer  will  stand  at  100,  by  nightfall  it  has  dropped 
to  0.13  degrees.  Such  a  rise  and  fall  are  tremendous, 
for  at  Greenwich,  it  may  be  pointed  out,  the  same  daily 
fluctuation  averages  about  17  degrees. 

Again,  in  the  highest  altitudes  through  which  the  line 


28o    RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

threads  its  way,  water  boils  at  180  degrees,  as  compared  with 
212  degrees  on  the  coast.  In  order  to  enable  the  workmen  to 
prepare  their  food  in  such  exposed,  lofty  situations,  special 
vessels  have  had  to  be  devised  to  prevent  the  water  boiling 
over,  for  this  result  ensues  long  before  the  food  is  cooked 
properly,  and  the  loss  of  water,  even  of  only  a  pint,  in  such 
parched  regions  is  a  serious  matter.  In  some  places  the 
country  is  as  arid  as  the  Sahara,  and  the  water  has  had  to 
be  transported  over  great  distances  in  barrels  slung  on 
the  backs  of  mules.  Large  packs  of  these  animals  have 
been  pressed  into  service  for  this  work  only.  Similarly, 
the  building  material  has  had  to  be  carried  from  the  coast 
to  the  constructional  camps  strung  out  along  the  proposed 
route,  by  means  of  this  ship  of  the  Andes. 

The  work  was  carried  out  from  both  ends  simultaneously, 
one  tentacle  being  thrown  out  from  the  junction  with  the 
Bolivian  State  railways  westwards,  and  the  other  eastwards 
from  the  coast.  The  cost  of  providing  the  capital  of  Bolivia 
with  this  direct  outlet  to  the  Pacific  approximates 
,£3,000,000,  or  $15,000,000.  Bearing  in  mind  the  high 
cost  of  the  other  Andean  railways,  this  last  conquest  of  the 
South  American  mountain  backbone  may  be  considered 
low. 


CHAPTER    XXIII 

A   LITTLE-KNOWN   CENTRAL   AFRICAN   RAILWAY 

BURIED  in  the  heart  of  Central  Africa,  with  one  border 
skirting  the  most  southern  of  the  chain  of  Great  African 
Lakes  which  nestle  in  the  huge  depressions  of  the  conti- 
nent, is  a  small,  little-known  British  colony.  This  corner 
of  the  empire  is  Nyasaland,  a  tongue  of  promising  terri- 
tory which  thrusts  itself  southward  into  Portuguese  East 
Africa. 

Though  the  wealth  of  this  little  territory,  measuring  550 
miles  in  length,  and  varying  from  80  to  90  miles  in  width, 
is  incalculable,  exploitation  of  the  resources  has  been  handi- 
capped by  the  complete  absence  of  transportation  facilities. 
The  early  pioneers  and  civilising  influences  visiting  the 
country  were  impressed  with  the  outlook,  and  sought  to 
attract  settlers.  The  more  hardened  and  adventurous 
accepted  the  invitation,  and,  finding  the  country  in  every 
way  as  described,  devoted  their  energies  to  the  cultivation 
of  coffee,  which  held  out  most  promising  inducements. 
The  physical  configuration  of  the  country,  providing  a 
diversity  of  hill  and  dale  and  ample  watering  facilities, 
served  to  bring  about  a  certain  movement  towards  settle- 
ment. Roads  were  driven  in  all  directions,  and,  indeed, 
the  internal  communication  to-day  leaves  little  to  be  desired. 

But  the  country  suffered  severely  from  being  cut  off  from 
the  world  at  large.  There  is  only  one  channel  by  which 
the  country  can  be  entered,  and  that  is  from  Chinde  on  the 
coast,  via  the  Zambesi  River  until  the  mouth  of  the  Shir£ 
River  is  gained,  this  latter  waterway  being  followed  so  far 
as  Port  Herald.  The  distance  is  about  210  miles,  and  the 
stern-wheel,  shallow-draught  steamboats  occupy  from  4  to 

6  days  on  the  journey  according  to  the  State  of  the  rivers. 

281 


282    RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

For  about  three  months  in  the  year  the  Shire"  River  can  be 
navigated  for  a  further  40  miles  to  Chinde,  and  occasion- 
ally Chikwawa,  310  miles  from  the  coast,  can  be  reached 
by  water. 

In  the  early  days  a  hope  was  entertained  that  it  would 
be  possible  to  travel  by  water  from  the  coast  to  Lake 
Nyasa,  but  this  is  impossible,  as  the  Murchison  Falls, 
which  connect  the  Upper  and  Lower  Shir£  rivers,  are  an 
insurmountable  obstacle.  Had  this  navigation  been  pos- 
sible, the  country  would  have  been  provided  with  an  excel- 
lent artery  of  communication,  and  would  have  brought 
Blantyre,  the  capital,  into  direct  touch  with  the  coast.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  however,  the  normal  head  of  navigation  on 
the  Shire*  River  is  Villa  Bocage,  in  Portuguese  territory, 
just  above  the  point  where  the  waterway  joins  the  Zambesi. 

In  order  to  remedy  this   grave   disability,    which   was 

hindering  the  expansion  of  the  country  to  an  acute  degree, 

the  British  Central  Africa  Company  decided  to  provide  a 

main  line  of  railway  between  Blantyre  and  Port  Herald. 

The  opportunities  were  unique,  as  transport  was  difficult 

and  costly,  while  it  was  pointed  out,  also,  that  by  means  of 

the  iron  road  the  slave-trade  around  Lake  Nyasa  could 

be  broken  up  effectively.       Sir  Bradford  Leslie,  K.C.I.E., 

M.INST.C.E.,  the  eminent  engineer  whose  bridge-building 

and    other    works    are    scattered    throughout    the    Indian 

Empire,  was  approached  to  extend  his  valuable  assistance 

and   skill   in   the   prosecution   of   the   undertaking.      The 

scheme  was  not  ambitious  so  far  as  railways  are  concerned, 

but  there  were  many  peculiar  difficulties  which  had  to  be 

overcome.      The   line   promoted   was  only    114   miles   in 

length,  but  in  that  distance  a  difference  of  3,700  feet  in 

levels  had  to  be  overcome.     The  broken  character  of  the 

country  proved  that  some  heavy  work  would  be  necessary, 

for  the  deep,  wide  rifts  in  the  mountain  sides,  though  dry 

in  summer,  are  raging  torrents  when  the  wet  season  breaks. 

Sir  Bradford  Leslie,  being  interested  in  the  extinction  oi 

the   slave-trade,    gladly   co-operated   in    the   scheme,    anc 

although  he  did  not  visit  the  country  to  inspect  the  outlook 


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A    TYPICAL    BRIDGE     ON     THE     NVASALAND     RAILWAY 

Everything  for  construction  had  to  be  exported  from  England. 


THE     NOVEL     LIFT     BRIDGE    OVER    THE    SHIRE     RIVER    AT    CH1ROMO 
The  span  is  lifted  by  winches  worked  by  natives. 

THE    RAILWAY   INVASION    OF   CENTRAL   AFRICA 


A   LITTLE-KNOWN   AFRICAN    RAILWAY     283 

on  the  spot,  he  prepared  estimates  from  data  of  the  physical 
conditions  extended,  upon  the  basis  of  his  Indian  work. 

It  was  intended,  in  the  first  instance,  that  Chiromo  should 
be  the  base  for  constructional  operations,  the  primary  idea 
being  to  connect  Blantyre  with  the  river  at  this  point.  This 
represented  the  building  of  about  84  miles  of  line,  and  pro- 
mised to  remove  the  isolation  and  inaccessibility  of  the 
capital.  At  this  time  a  cart  road  was  the  sole  means  of 
communication,  and  when  this  could  not  be  used  everything 
had  to  be  carried  on  the  heads  of  native  porters,  while  pas- 
sengers had  to  travel  to  and  fro  by  "machilla,"  a  kind  of 
hammock  slung  from  a  pole. 

But  access  to  Chiromo  was  found  to  be  so  unreliable, 
owing  to  the  shallow  depth  of  water  in  the  river  and  the 
numerous  sandbanks  upon  which  the  vessels  became 
stranded,  that  it  had  to  be  abandoned  as  a  base.  A  further 
30  miles  of  line  had  to  be  added  to  the  project,  to  enable 
it  to  be  carried  northwards  from  Port  Herald.  The  con- 
tractors found  themselves  hampered  at  every  turn,  and  it 
is  probable  that  no  railway  was  ever  constructed  under 
such  peculiar  and  exasperating  difficulties.  Railways,  as 
a  rule,  have  been  carried  from  a  base  on  the  coast,  where 
supplies  could  be  landed  without  very  great  difficulty,  but 
in  this  instance  this  was  quite  impossible.  Then,  again, 
the  work  was  being  carried  out  at  an  extreme  distance  from 
home,  and  an  elaborate  organisation  was  requisite  to  keep 
the  forces  in  the  field  supplied  with  every  little  necessity. 

When  the  line  was  commenced  the  country  was  in  a 
very  primeval  condition.  Skilled  labour  was  quite  non- 
existent, and  unskilled  labour  was  very  scarce.  This 
problem  was  accentuated  by  the  fact  that  Nyasaland  was 
being  drained  of  its  resources  in  this  respect  by  agents 
from  the  Transvaal,  who  had  received  permission  to  recruit 
negro  labour  in  this  country.  The  railway  authorities 
endeavoured  to  meet  this  situation  by  importing  coolies 
from  India  for  the  purpose  of  construction,  but  this  action 
was  sternly  forbidden  by  the  Government  authorities. 
The  effort  to  provide  the  country  with  the  very  com- 


284    RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE    WORLD 

munication  it  needed  so  sorely  to  bring  about  its  settlement, 
furthermore,  was  hampered  in  another  direction.  The 
Government  authorities  in  London  insisted  that  the  railway 
should  be  built  according  to  the  standard  of  the  Rhodesian 
railways,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  Rhodesia  was  in 
a  very  much  more  advanced  position  economically,  whereas 
Nyasaland  had  not  reached  the  moulding  stage.  This 
was  a  somewhat  inexplicable  attitude  to  assume,  and  was 
of  a  nature  that  might  have  jeopardised  private  enterprise 
in  this  field  of  endeavour.  However,  the  engineers  and 
builders  accepted  the  terms  and  the  work  proceeded. 

Under  this  arrangement  the  3  feet  6  inches  gauge  was 
adopted  as  on  the  Rhodesian  railways,  so  that  in  the  dim 
future,  when  the  two  systems  are  connected,  through  run- 
ning will  be  possible.  The  rails  weigh  4iJ  pounds  per 
yard,  and  as  timber  is  devoured  by  white  ants  and  boring 
beetles,  it  could  not  be  used  in  any  form.  Consequently, 
steel  sleepers,  or  ties,  had  to  be  adopted. 

Everything  required  in  connection  with  the  undertaking 
had  to  be  shipped  from  England;  the  country  did  not  assist 
the  builders  one  little  bit.  Not  an  ounce  of  coal  could  be 
obtained  locally,  there  was  no  lime,  and  bricks  could  not  be 
made  to  assist  in  the  erection  of  the  piers.  The  country 
is  even  deficient  in  a  good  quality  of  stone  suited  to  build- 
ing purposes,  so  masonry  work  was  equally  out  of  the  ques- 
tion. The  only  alternative  W7as  the  utilisation  of  concrete. 
The  Portland  cement  for  this  purpose,  by  the  time  it  gained 
Port  Herald,  cost  between  five  and  six  times  the  price  for 
which  it  could  be  bought  in  England — in  other  words,  the 
expense  of  carriage  was  from  four  to  five  times  the  value 
of  the  article.  This  applied  to  other  material  beyond 
cement.  In  fact,  the  transportation  to  such  a  remote  dis- 
trict was  a  heavy  item.  The  articles  were  dispatched  to 
Beira,  where  they  were  transhipped  into  coasting  steamers, 
and  five  hours  later  were  landed  at  Chinde,  where  they  were 
loaded  upon  the  shallow-draught  river  boats  and  conveyed 
to  Port  Herald. 

The   line   follows  a   northerly  course  after   leaving  the 


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THE   BASCULES   BEING    LOWERED    BY    CABLES    AND   WINCHES 
FROM    EITHER    CLIFF-FACE 


[See  page  302 

THE    BASCULES   LOWERED,    SHOWING    THE    FRENCH    ENGINEERS 
AT    CENTRE    MAKING   THE    CONNECTION 

ERECTING    THE    BASCULES   FOR    THE    FAUX-NAMITI    BRIDGE 
ON    THE   YUNNAN    RAILWAY 


A   LITTLE-KNOWN    AFRICAN    RAILWAY     285 

southern  terminus,  and  roughly  clings  to  the  bank  of  the 
river  so  far  as  Chiromo.  Here  it  swings  across  the  water- 
way over  a  bridge  about  420  feet  in  length,  to  gain  the 
valley  of  the  Ruo  River.  This  bridge  is  the  outstanding 
feature  of  the  railway,  on  account  of  its  interesting  lifting 
span,  which  is  of  novel  and  unusual  design.  When  the 
railway  was  plotted  the  Government  stipulated  that  there 
should  be  no  interference  with  navigation  on  the  river, 
although  the  waterway,  as  a  highway  of  traffic,  has  fallen 
practically  into  desuetude  since  the  railway  was  constructed. 
However,  official  requirements  had  to  be  met,  and  these 
demanded  an  opening  100  feet  wide,  and  giving  a  clearance 
of  30  feet  in  height  at  high  water.  The  ordinary  type  of 
draw  or  swing  bridge,  to  satisfy  this  requisition,  was  quite 
out  of  the  question,  because  the  need  to  open  the  bridge  is 
very  rarely  experienced,  and  when  the  demand  does  arise, 
the  time  occupied  in  the  operation  is  of  minor  importance. 
Heavy  expenditure  under  this  heading,  therefore,  was  not 
justifiable. 

Moreover,  as  native  labour  was  to  superintend  the  work 
of  opening  and  closing  the  bridge,  the  simplest  arrange- 
ment possible  was  essential,  and,  furthermore,  had  to  be 
capable  of  hand  manipulation.  The  designing  engineers, 
Sir  Douglas  Fox  &  Partners,  and  Sir  Charles  Metcalfe, 
Bart.,  evolved  an  ingenious  solution.  On  the  top  of  two 
adjacent  piers  carrying  the  span  in  its  normal  position,  a 
tower  was  erected  on  either  side  of  the  opening,  with  two 
simple,  single,  vertical  racks  on  either  tower.  At  the  top 
of  each  tower  a  platform  extending  the  width  of  the  bridge 
was  provided,  together  with  a  large  sprocket  wheel  at  either 
end.  A  chain  passed  over  each  sprocket  wheel,  one  end 
being  attached  to  a  corner  of  the  bridge,  and  the  other  to 
a  heavy  counterweight. 

To  open  the  bridge,  all  that  the  natives  have  to  do  is  to 
wind  a  winch  which  rotates  the  sprocket  wheel,  and  as  the 
counterweight  descends  the  whole  span  rises  vertically  and 
horizontally,  being  guided  in  its  movement  by  the  rack 
on  each  tower.  The  counterweight  is  the  full  width  of  the 


286    RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

bridge,  and  when  the  span  has  been  lifted  to  its  fullest 
extent  the  counterbalance  weight  lies  across  the  track,  to 
form  a  high  barrier  to  any  one  attempting  to  cross  the 
bridge  when  the  span  is  open. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  bridge  acts  on  the  principle  of 
a  sash  window,  where  the  sash  weight  counterbalances  the 
weight  of  the  moving  portion,  and  in  lifting  only  the 
friction  of  the  moving  parts  has  to  be  overcome.  To  guard 
against  disaster  from  tampering  or  misuse,  the  bridge, 
when  either  raised  or  lowered,  is  locked.  To  lower  the 
bridge  it  is  only  necessary  to  reverse  the  winding  direction 
of  the  winch.  The  span  of  steel  moved  in  this  manner 
weighs  55  tens,  and  the  whole  operation  of  opening  and 
closing  occupies  about  half-an-hour,  eight  men  under  a 
native  superintendent  sufficing  for  the  movement  of  the 
winches.  It  is  an  unusual  type  of  lifting  bridge,  but  it  is 
doubtful  whether  a  simpler  and  cheaper  means  of  meeting 
the  situation  could  have  been  devised,  while  the  main- 
tenance expenses — a  vital  consideration  in  such  a  remote 
country — are  reduced  to  insignificance. 

About  12  miles  out  of  Chiromo  the  railway  commences 
a  heavy  climb,  as  it  has  to  gain  a  summit  level  of  4000  feet 
to  reach  the  plateau.  The  ascent  is  through  very  tumbled 
country.  The  ruling  grade  is  i  in  44,  and  the  minimum 
curve  is  of  363  feet  radius.  As  the  valley  winds  amazingly, 
the  line  is  a  continuation  of  curves  winding  round  crags 
and  bluffs.  Here  and  there  the  mountain  sides  are  torn 
by  wide  clefts  that  have  had  to  be  spanned  by  bridges, 
which  are  supported  on  steel  towers,  carried  on  pedestals 
or  plinths  built  of  concrete.  One  of  the  largest  bridges 
of  this  class  is  that  across  the  M'Swadzi  River,  which  is 
290  feet  long. 

The  Ruo  valley  is  left  after  the  64th  mile  is  passed,  and 
the  line  makes  a  difficult  and  tortuous  ascent  along  the 
Tuchili  River  for  nearly  10  miles,  when  it  swings  over  to 
the  Luchenza  River,  which  is  followed  until  the  summit 
level  is  gained,  109  miles  out  of  Port  Herald.  In  the  next 
5  miles  a  descent  of  500  feet  has  to  be  made  to  gain  Blan- 


A   LITTLE-KNOWN   AFRICAN   RAILWAY     287 

tyre.  This  is  the  present  terminus  of  the  railway,  though 
an  extension  has  been  projected  northwards  to  Fort  John- 
ston at  the  head  of  Lake  Nyasa,  and  another  limb  south- 
wards from  Port  Herald  for  60  miles  to  the  Portuguese 
town,  Villa  Bocage,  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Shir6 
River. 

In  the  course  of  the  114  miles  there  is  at  present  only 
one  intermediate  station  with  an  existing  township,  at 
Chiromo.  Three  other  stations  have  been  provided,  how- 
ever, in  the  anticipation  that  settlements  will  spring  up 
and  blossom  into  towns  as  the  country  opens  up. 

Construction  was  sadly  delayed  by  the  difficulties  in 
regard  to  labour.  The  native  proved  an  indifferent  work- 
man, the  maxim  being  to  accomplish  as  little  work  in  a  day 
as  possible.  Then,  when  the  rainy  season — lasting  about 
three  months — set  in,  the  whole  of  the  working  force 
migrated  from  the  grade  in  a  body  to  cultivate  patches  of 
land,  and  were  not  seen  again  until  the  weather  changed. 
The  climate  played  sad  havoc  with  the  Europeans  who 
ventured  to  the  scene  of  operations  to  superintend  native 
effort,  and  the  mortality  from  tropical  diseases  among  the 
whites  was  very  heavy.  In  order  to  protect  what  European 
labour  is  required  in  the  repair  shops  and  the  administra- 
tion offices,  the  headquarters  have  been  established  at 
Limbi,  five  miles  from  Blantyre,  where  the  full  benefit  of 
the  elevation  is  gained,  this  point  being  at  an  altitude  of 
4000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  one  of  the  most  healthy  parts 
of  the  country. 

An  amusing  story  is  related  by  Sir  Bradford  Leslie  in 
connection  with  the  construction  of  the  railway.  Prior  to 
the  commencement  of  this  undertaking  labour  in  the 
country  was  rewarded  in  cloth — there  was  no  money  cur- 
rency, and  in  fact  the  natives  knew  nothing  about  coinage 
or  its  value.  However,  when  the  line  was  commenced,  the 
Government  insisted  that  the  natives  should  not  be  re- 
munerated in  kind,  but  in  cash.  Wages  were  paid  once 
a  month,  and  the  natives  immediately  were  urged  by 
Hindoo  traders  to  transfer  the  money  for  cloth.  The  latter 


288     RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

played  upon  the  native's  ignorance  of  money  to  distinct 
personal  advantage,  but  the  natives  had  to  pay  dearly  for 
their  goods.  Moreover,  they  came  to  the  conclusion  that 
the  textiles  they  received  in  exchange  for  their  cash  were 
inferior  in  quality  to  that  given  to  them  in  direct  settlement 
of  work  done.  Consequently,  they  assailed  the  engineer 
and  complained  that  his  money  was  bad,  in  support  of 
which  contention  they  displayed  the  small  quantity  of  in- 
different material  they  received  in  exchange  for  their  wages. 
They  certainly  did  not  evince  a  very  marked  appreciation 
for  the  railway  company's  system  of  paying  for  labour  in 
sterling. 

Although  the  undertaking  cost  more  than  had  been  esti- 
mated, the  results  justified  fully  the  expenditure,  for  the 
railway,  in  point  of  construction,  compares  very  favourably 
with  other  lines  of  a  similar  character  on  the  continent. 
The  engineer  in  charge  of  the  work,  Mr.  A.  G.  Pears, 
overcame  his  unique  difficulties  in  a  highly  satisfactory 
manner,  and  its  completion  in  about  seven  years  is  a 
striking  tribute  to  his  organisation  and  methods,  while 
the  unceasing  expansion  of  the  country  supports  the 
initiative  of  those  who  fathered  the  enterprise. 


CHAPTER    XXIV 

THE   INVASION   OF  THE   FAR   EAST 

I. — Early  Days  in  China 

THERE  has  been  much  discussion  during  recent  years 
concerning  the  remarkable  awakening  of  China  in  every 
ramification  of  progress  and  industry,  but  without  a  doubt 
the  most  wonderful  manifestation  of  this  movement  has 
been  in  regard  to  railways.  In  1870,  when  the  United 
Kingdom  was  criss-crossed  with  no  less  than  15,537  miles 
of  the  iron  road,  and  the  United  States  was  threaded  with 
52,922  miles  of  railway,  the  huge  tract  of  Asiatic  territory 
known  as  the  Chinese  Empire,  of  sufficient  area  to  absorb 
easily  both  the  United  States  and  the  British  Isles,  and 
outnumbering  the  combined  population  of  the  two  latter 
nations  by  more  than  6  to  i,  did  not  possess  100  yards  of 
the  steel  highway. 

This  remarkable  state  of  affairs  was  not  due  to  lack  of 
enterprise  or  initiative  on  the  part  of  far-seeing  financiers 
and  engineers.  It  was  attributable  directly  to  one  influence 
— Fung  Shui,  an  unfathomable  and  insurmountable  diffi- 
culty— which  thwarted  every  attempt  to  bring  the  great 
nation  on  the  eastern  borders  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  into  line 
with  other  countries.  The  Flowery  Land  is  ridden  with 
mystery,  superstition,  and  a  religious  fanaticism.  These 
offered  an  insurmountable  barrier  to  development  in  any 
form.  The  balance  between  the  "White  Tiger"  and  the 
"Azure  Dragon,"  two  inscrutable  forces,  had  to  be  main- 
tained at  all  costs,  and  unless  every  member  of  the  Celestial 
community  strove  to  maintain  this  equipoise,  the  fates  in 
store  for  him  were  beyond  comprehension. 

An  effort  to  break  through  the  influence  of  Fung  Shui 
was  made  in  1875  by  a  group  of  Englishmen.  The  firm  of 
u  289 


290    RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

Messrs.  Jardine,  Matheson  £  Company,  who  have  large 
interests  in  China,  desired  to  connect  Shanghai  to  Woo- 
sung  with  12  miles  of  railway,  and  they  secured  the 
services  of  the  late  Mr.  G.  J.  Morrison,  an  accomplished 
engineer,  to  carry  the  project  to  fulfilment.  Great  diffi- 
culty was  experienced  in  securing  the  requisite  permission 
to  proceed,  because  the  Chinese  entertained  a  deep-rooted 
objection  to  the  invasion  of  their  country  by  the  foreigner. 
However,  the  application  proved  successful  and  the  line  was 
built. 

The  opening  of  this  short  road  was  received  with  acclama- 
tion by  the  lower  classes  in  close  proximity  to  the  line. 
They  experienced  a  peculiar  delight  in  travelling  in  the 
carriages  drawn  by  the  steam  horse,  and  all  was  proceeding 
merrily.  The  opposition  of  the  Chinese  to  the  new-fangled 
idea  had  been  overcome,  argued  the  promoters  of  the 
enterprise,  and  they  looked  forward  to  further  railway 
expansion.  But  they  did  not  reckon  with  the  offended 
opposition  and  ignorant  vested  interests,  as  represented  by 
influential  land-owners  and  high  personages.  The  wrath  of 
the  gods  was  anticipated  in  no  uncertain  manner,  but  as  this 
did  not  appear  to  have  vent  spontaneously,  the  opponents 
resorted  to  ingenious  methods  to  achieve  their  desires. 
They  induced  a  soldier  to  throw  himself  before  an  ap- 
proaching train,  under  the  promise  of  a  payment  of  $100 
to  his  family.  The  latter,  possibly  entertaining  the  belief 
that  the  presence  of  his  body  stretched  across  the  metals 
might  arrest  the  progress  of  the  train,  or  at  least  throw  it 
off  the  track,  without  inflicting  injury  upon  himself,  sub- 
mitted to  the  ordeal,  with  the  inevitable  result.  He  was 
killed.  Instantly  the  intriguers  published  this  circum- 
stance as  an  instance  of  the  intense  displeasure  of  the  gods, 
and  the  countryside  rose  up  with  one  voice,  calling  for  the 
destruction  of  the  innovation. 

The  agitation  startled  the  Government.  An  inquiry  was 
held  upon  the  suicide,  and  the  unanimous  verdict  was  that 
the  line  was  unsafe.  It  was  condemned  forthwith.  The 
Government  even  went  farther  under  public  pressure.  It 


THE   INVASION   OF  THE   FAR   EAST        291 

purchased  the  railway,  lock,  stock  and  barrel,  at  cost  price, 
and  turned  it  over  to  the  enraged  populace  to  do  with  it 
according  to  their  inclinations.  The  frenzied  fanatics  tore 
the  track  up  piecemeal,  threw  the  rolling  stock  out  of  the 
country,  and,  to  propitiate  the  gods,  erected  a  temple  to 
the  Queen  of  Heaven  upon  the  site  selected  as  the  terminus 
in  Shanghai.  The  promoters  of  the  ill-starred  enterprise 
retrieved  as  much  of  the  discarded  remains  of  the  line  as 
possible,  and  transported  them  to  the  island  of  Formosa 
for  another  undertaking.  Such  was  the  inglorious  end 
that  befell  the  first  attempt  to  introduce  Stephenson's 
invention  into  the  land  of  the  Celestial. 

Curiously  enough,  among  those  most  prominent  in  the 
opposition  to  this  movement  was  Li-Hung-Chang,  subse- 
quently China's  foremost  and  most  enlightened  statesman. 
He  had  spared  no  effort  to  prevent  the  construction  of  the 
first  railway,  and  when  it  was  completed  he  left  no  stone 
unturned  to  bring  about  its  demolition.  Shortly  after- 
wards, however,  he  became  converted  to  the  new  method 
of  locomotion.  Among  those  few  enterprising  and  en- 
lightened Chinese  gentlemen  who  realised  the  widespread 
advantages  accruing  from  the  adoption  of  railways  in 
other  parts  of  the  world,  and  who  foresaw  its  possibili- 
ties in  his  native  land,  was  General  Tong-King-Sing.  He 
had  followed  the  Shanghai- Woosung  experiment  with  deep 
interest.  Undeterred  by  the  fate  which  had  overwhelmed 
the  effort  of  Messrs.  Jardine,  Matheson  &  Company,  he 
decided  to  build  another  line,  but  he  took  care  first  to  win 
the  most  powerful  opponent  to  such  a  movement  to  his 
side.  The  General  was  identified  with  a  steamship  com- 
pany which  required  cheap  coal.  Li-Hung-Chang,  then 
Viceroy  of  Chichli,  was  interested  in  some  collieries  at 
Tongshan,  some  30  miles  inland  from  the  nearest  port  at 
Pehtang. 

The  General  approached  the  Viceroy,  and  the  two,  with 

the  aid  of  some  other  influential  friends,  decided  to  exploit 

the  deposits.     But  the  question  arose  as  to  how  the  coal 

could  be  carried  cheaply  to  the  coast.     General  Tong-King- 

u  2 


292    RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

Sing  maintained  that  there  was  no  means  of  transportation 
which  could  compete  with  the  railway,  and  he  skilfully 
won  the  Viceroy  round  to  his  side.  In  this  manner  the 
Viceroy  was  converted  from  an  implacable  enemy  to  a 
strenuous  advocate  of  railways.  They  approached  the 
Government  for  the  requisite  permission,  and  the  latter, 
impressed  possibly  by  the  great  men  associated  with  the 
enterprise,  sanctioned  the  project.  The  preliminary 
arrangements  were  hurried  forward,  an  Englishman,  Mr. 
C.  W.  Kinder,  who  might  be  described  as  the  Father  of 
the  Railway  in  China,  being  enlisted  as  engineer-in-chief. 

Before  actual  constructional  work  was  commenced,  how- 
ever, the  Government — no  doubt  owing  to  pressure — re- 
pented of  its  action  and  withdrew  its  approbation.  As  a 
result  the  company  were  forced  to  build  a  canal,  which  was 
completed  for  some  miles,  but  the  head  of  this  waterway 
was  some  7  miles  from  the  coal-pits.  From  the  end  of  the 
canal  to  the  port,  the  Government  authorised  the  construc- 
tion of  a  tramroad,  but  it  stipulated  that  mules  should  be 
employed  exclusively  for  the  haulage  of  the  trucks.  The 
company  was  forced  to  make  the  most  of  this  indifferent 
bargain,  and  so  the  coal  was  transported  from  the  collieries 
to  the  port  under  very  adverse  circumstances. 

These  slow  methods,  however,  did  not  appeal  to  the 
engineer,  and  secretly  he  decided  to  effect  an  improvement. 
He  fashioned  a  locomotive  from  the  best  materials  he  could 
command,  a  portable  engine  which  was  used  at  the  mines 
being  mounted  on  a  truck  in  such  a  way  as  to  secure  self- 
propulsion.  This  was  used  for  haulage  between  the 
collieries  and  the  head  of  the  canal.  As  no  ill  results 
attended  its  use,  the  Government  finally  approved  of  its 
utilisation.  Shortly  afterwards  the  line  as  a  railway  was 
extended  to  Tientsin,  and  opened  for  traffic  in  October, 
1888.  Subsequently  the  railhead  was  pushed  onwards  to 
Shan-Hai-Kuan.  From  the  small  7-mile  road  upon  which 
the  enterprising  engineer  surreptitiously  placed  a  fearsome- 
looking  locomotive  the  railway  has  spread  its  tentacles 
throughout  the  Chinese  Empire,  the  original  road  has  been 
extended,  and  has  effected  connection  with  other  systems, 


THE   INVASION   OF  THE    FAR    EAST        293 

giving  communication  in  the  north  with  Mukden,  Harbin 
and  the  Trans-Siberian  railway. 

The  original  road  is  intensely  British,  both  in  its  char- 
acter and  operation.  It  was  built  on  the  English  model, 
and  differed  greatly  from  the  usual  class  of  pioneer  railway. 
The  gradients  are  easy  and  the  curves  are  of  wide  radius. 
At  one  point  the  location  of  the  line  ran  through  two  private 
cemeteries,  but  as  the  graves  of  the  ancestors  could  not  be 
disturbed  under  any  considerations  whatever,  the  line  had 
to  make  a  wide  swerve  to  avoid  this  obstruction. 

All  the  materials  for  the  railway  were  obtained  from 
Great  Britain,  and  the  solidity  of  the  construction  is  an 
outstanding  feature.  Every  bridge  is  carried  out  either  in 
steel,  concrete,  brick  or  stone,  whichever  was  found  to  be 
the  most  economical.  This  feature  somewhat  surprised 
American  engineers,  who  are  accustomed  to  less  durable 
work  in  the  initial  stages,  especially  as  it  did  not  appear 
justifiable  in  such  a  fickle  country  as  China.  The  latter 
were  also  astonished  at  the  low  price  at  which  the  requisite 
materials  were  landed  in  the  country,  and  the  fact  that 
mechanical  appliances  could  not  compete  with  coolie  labour 
in  point  of  cheapness.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  country 
traversed  at  that  time  was  exceedingly  poor,  the  inhabitants 
experiencing  a  terrible  struggle  to  eke  out  a  pitiable  exist- 
ence. Indeed,  around  Tongshan,  at  the  time  the  railway 
made  its  appearance,  it  was  estimated  that  over  50,000 
natives  died  of  starvation  in  two  months.  When  the  iron 
horse  invaded  this  territory  a  change  for  the  better  set  in, 
inasmuch  as  it  offered  a  ready  and  inexpensive  means  of 
conveying  the  produce  from  the  land  to  market. 

One  piece  of  engineering  skill  has  always  ranked  as  a 
distinct  wonder  in  the  neighbourhood.  This  is  the  bridge 
over  the  Lan-ho,  2,170  feet  in  length,  in  which  there  are 
5  spans  each  of  200  feet.  It  was  designed  by  the  late  Sir 
Benjamin  Baker,  and  aroused  interest  because  of  its  unusual 
design,  which  was  condemned  severely  by  American 
engineers.  This  famous  bridge-builder,  however,  was  by 
no  means  content  to  abide  by  hide-bound  rules  and  regula- 
tions, and  though  in  this  structure  he  departed  from  the 


294    RAILWAY   CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

orthodox  very  decidedly,  he  forced  his  detractors  to  admit 
that  the  bridge  was  absolutely  safe,  and  was  able  to  meet 
any  traffic  that  it  was  likely  to  be  called  upon  to  bear. 

Another  feature  compels  attention.  Just  before  reaching 
Shan-Hai-Kuan,  the  line  strikes  across  a  valley  about  a 
mile  in  width.  Here  there  is  a  bridge  having  an  opening 
of  some  1000  feet,  through  which  a  narrow  stream  makes 
its  way.  Originally  the  track  was  carried  about  10  feet  above 
the  floor  of  the  valley,  but  the  very  next  wet  season  caused 
the  small  stream  to  swell  into  a  wide,  foaming  torrent, 
rising  to  16  feet  above  high  watermark,  and  it  swept  over  the 
embankment  like  a  mill-race.  When  the  waters  subsided, 
the  engineers,  instead  of  overhauling  their  earthworks, 
lowered  the  track  to  the  bottom  of  the  valley,  so  that  no 
obstruction  should  be  offered  to  future  floods,  while  the 
road-bed  was  protected  by  a  paving  extending  for  50  feet 
on  either  side,  with  bushes  planted  on  the  superimposed 
earth.  This  expedient  was  found  to  meet  the  situation 
completely  and  to  protect  the  track  from  destruction  by  the 
flood-waters,  which  fall  quickly  after  attaining  their  highest 
level. 

In  the  early  days  the  trains  constituted  a  source  of 
infinite  amusement.  They  were  what  are  known  as 
"mixed"  trains;  i.e.  they  carried  both  passengers  and 
freight.  The  passenger  coaches  were  of  varying  classes, 
the  Chinese  travelling  in  long,  open  trucks,  with  tarpaulins 
to  protect  them  from  inclement  weather.  The  natives 
appeared  to  enjoy  this  experience  highly,  especially  when 
the  train  attained  its  maximum  speed  of  about  25  miles  an 
hour,  which  they  admitted  was  quicker  travelling  than  by 
an  animal-drawn  cart.  The  whole  100  miles  were  covered 
in  about  5j  hours,  including  stops,  some  of  which,  at  inter- 
mediate points,  were  of  long  duration.  At  these  points, 
however,  the  time  was  whiled  away  by  watching  the  antics 
of  the  Chinese  travellers,  who  were  sorely  perturbed  lest 
the  steam  horse  might  start  before  its  scheduled  time. 
This  initial  trunk  line  played  an  important  educational  part 
in  the  railway  expansion  of  China,  and  the  cost  of  travelling 
was  cut  down  to  the  lowest  figure.  The  first-class  fare  for 


THE   INVASION   OF  THE   FAR   EAST        295 

the  whole  distance  was  55.  5^.,  or  $1.30  for  100  miles, 
which,  in  comparison  with  the  scale  prevailing  in  other 
parts  of  the  world  for  similar  accommodation,  was  absurdly 
cheap.  The  Chinese  at  first  regarded  the  railway  with 
childish  delight,  those  who  could  afford  the  expense 
travelling  to  and  fro  for  the  mere  pleasure  of  travelling. 

Consequently,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  railway  soon 
established  itself  in  popular  favour.  Indeed,  resentment 
from  the  earliest  days  had  proceeded  only  from  the  upper 
classes;  the  peasants  hailed  it  with  unfeigned  pleasure. 
Accordingly,  as  railway  expansion  set  in,  any  opposition 
that  was  encountered  was  fostered  by  ignorant,  affected, 
wealthy  interests.  After  Li-Hung-Chang  became  a  staunch 
friend  of  the  new  means  of  travel,  he  established  his  own 
ways  of  dealing  with  opposition,  which  were  peculiarly 
Chinese.  On  one  railway  which  he  supported,  traffic  was 
interrupted  frequently  by  displaced  rails  and  sleepers. 
When  he,  in  his  official  capacity,  sought  to  ascertain  the 
reason  for  such  disturbance,  he  was  informed  that  it  was 
due  to  the  spirits,  who  resented  its  intrusion.  He  made  no 
reply  to  this  ingenuous  reply,  but  hinted  that  if  he  caught 
the  spirits  interfering  with  the  line,  it  would  go  hard  with 
them.  Needless  to  say,  no  further  trouble  was  experienced 
on  that  line  in  regard  to  breaks  in  the  track. 

Within  the  past  few  years  several  momentous  railway 
undertakings  have  been  carried  to  successful  conclusion, 
and  to-day  there  is  feverish  activity  in  covering  the  empire 
with  the  iron  thread  on  every  hand.  Foremost  among  these 
enterprises  are  the  Shanghai-Nanking,  the  Pekin-Kalgan, 
and  the  Canton-Kowloon  lines.  Railways,  indeed,  are 
being  driven  through  the  country  by  various  interests  and 
nations,  including  British,  United  States,  Belgian,  French, 
Portuguese  and  German.  In  fact,  there  is  spirited  com- 
petition among  the  various  powers  to  bring  about  the 
complete  conquest  of  the  Celestial  Kingdom  by  the  iron 
road. 

Although  the  initial  venture  in  regard  to  introducing  the 
railway  into  China  had  been  so  disastrous,  Messrs.  Jardine, 
Matheson  &  Company  were  by  no  means  deterred.  They 


296    RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

waited  a  favourable  opportunity  before  repeating  their 
experiment.  It  came  twenty-three  years  after  their  first  ill- 
starred  adventure,  for  in  1898  they  received  permission  to 
connect  Pekin  with  Nanking  by  rail,  a  distance  of  some 
200  miles,  together  with  other  enterprises  of  a  similar 
character.  This  railway  was  undertaken  by  a  group  of 
financiers  known  as  the  British  &  Chinese  Corporation,  and 
they  carried  the  first  part  of  the  scheme  through  to  success. 
The  arrangement  was  drawn  up  that  this  line  should  coin- 
cide in  every  particular  with  a  typical  first-class  European 
railway,  and  this  has  been  secured  to  the  strict  letter  of  the 
agreement.  Indeed,  it  stands  as  the  finest-built  line  in 
China.  It  proved  an  expensive  undertaking,  due  in  a 
great  measure  to  the  solidity  of  the  constructional  work, 
but  the  policy  has  been  well  repaid.  The  railway  serves 
a  wealthy  district,  where  the  possibilities  of  expansion  are 
extensive,  for  the  territory  is  rich  in  all  resources. 

Curiously  enough,  this  line  includes  the  stretch  of  12 
miles  between  Shanghai  and  Woosung  which  it  was  at- 
tempted to  connect  by  the  iron  road  in  1875,  and  which 
the  natives  tore  up  and  destroyed  in  an  unceremonious 
manner.  The  promoters  of  that  enterprise  may  be  said 
to  have  achieved  a  sweet  revenge,  especially  as  "Fung 
Shui "  does  not  appear  to  have  been  perturbed  by  the 
second  attempt  to  set  the  Tiger  and  Dragon  at  variance. 

This  line  is  what  is  known  as  a  "fast  road";  that  is, 
owing  to  its  comparatively  easy  alignment,  there  being 
several  stretches  of  straight  road,  while  the  track  is  well 
ballasted,  it  is  favourable  to  high  speeds.  Indeed,  on  the 
opening  day,  the  special  train  which  travelled  over  the  line 
with  privileged  guests  covered  the  193  miles  in  5j  hours, 
notwithstanding  that  on  the  last  25  miles  the  speed  had  to 
be  dropped  to  a  maximum  of  25  miles  per  hour,  as  the  road 
had  not  been  ballasted  thoroughly.  On  some  portions  of 
the  line  the  train  notched  a  speed  of  57  miles  an  hour,  and 
apparently  was  appreciated  greatly  by  the  Chinese  guests.. 


CHAPTER    XXV 

THE   INVASION   OF  THE   FAR   EAST 

II. — Modern  Developments  in  China  and  Japan. 

THE  Chinese,  once  they  were  awakened  to  the  possibili- 
ties of  the  railway,  were  not  content  to  permit  their  country 
to  be  covered  with  foreign-built  lines.  They  decided  to 
become  active  participators  in  the  movement — in  other 
words,  they  acquired  all  the  knowledge  they  could,  and 
then  undertook  constructional  engineering.  Their  aptitude 
for  this  work  finds  an  excellent  expression  in  the  Pekin- 
Kalgan  railway,  125  miles  in  length.  This  road  was  built 
throughout  by  Chinese  effort,  the  engineer-in-chief  being 
His  Excellency  Chang-Tien- Yow,  who  is  to-day  the  fore- 
most Chinese  engineer  in  this  field  in  China.  He  was 
educated  in  the  United  States,  where  he  acquired  valuable 
knowledge  concerning  this  branch  of  engineering,  and 
completed  his  training  under, Mr.  Kinder,  the  builder  of 
the  oldest  railway  in  the  Celestial  Kingdom. 

The  road  is  excellently  built,  and  the  engineer  displayed 
his  ingenuity  in  coping  with  the  problem  of  carrying  the 
line  through  the  Nankow  Pass.  This  pass  guards  the 
entrance  of  the  main  road  through  the  Great  Wall,  and  to 
overcome  the  obstruction  a  gradient  of  i  in  30  had  to  be 
introduced  for  a  distance  of  13  miles.  At  the  foot  of  the 
pass  three  Mallet  locomotives  of  British  construction  are 
maintained,  and  they  crawl  to  the  summit  of  the  pass,  at 
an  altitude  of  about  1,500  feet,  in  two  hours — a  speed  of 
about  6J-  miles  an  hour. 

The  alignment  of  the  railway  up  this  pass  is  noteworthy. 
The  road  clings  for  the  most  part  to  the  side  of  the  moun- 
tains, crossing  deep  rifts  and  wide  clefts,  as  well  as  cutting 
through  spurs  and  humps  and  compassing  massive  crags, 

297 


298    RAILWAY   CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

Four  tunnels  were  found  to  be  unavoidable,  one,  3,580  feet 
in  length,  burrowing  200  feet  beneath  the  Great  Wall. 
When  the  summit  is  gained,  the  railway  enters  a  flat 
plateau,  the  only  difficulty  here,  as  on  the  flats  around 
Pekin,  being  the  preservation  of  the  road  from  the  attacks 
of  floods.  That  this  is  no  slight  factor  is  proved  from  the 
fact  that  in  the  vicinity  of  Pekin  a  wash-out  which  over- 
whelmed the  line  cost  no  less  than  ,£32,000,  or  $160,000,  to 
repair.  The  completion  of  the  work,  however,  offers  con- 
vincing testimony  that  the  Chinese,  under  competent  super- 
vision, are  perfectly  capable  of  building  railways  without 
the  aid  of  foreigners,  and  that  no  fault  can  be  found  with 
their  work  so  far  as  solidity  and  durability  are  concerned. 

For  centuries  the  Chinese  have  been  famed  for  their 
prowess  in  matters  pertaining  to  civil  engineering.  At 
times  this  skill  pursues  a  quaint  course,  but  probably  the 
most  extraordinary  illustration  was  in  connection  with  the 
Shanghai-Nangchow-Ningpo  railway.  By  an  imperial 
edict  a  Chinese  official  was  appointed  as  engineer-in-chief. 

At  one  point  it  wras  necessary  to  throw  a  bridge  across 
a  river.  How  it  was  to  be  accomplished  passed  the  com- 
prehension of  the  engineer.  But  he  evolved  a  solution 
which,  to  say  the  least,  would  be  difficult  to  equal  in 
originality.  He  built  the  bridge  on  dry  land,  on  one  bank 
of  the  river.  When  this  was  completed  satisfactorily,  he 
diverted  the  waterway,  so  that  the  river  ran  beneath  the 
bridge  through  a  new,  specially-built  channel,  and  the  old 
one  was  filled  up  !  In  another  instance,  where  a  similar 
situation  presented  itself,  a  pier  in  the  centre  of  the  water- 
way became  necessary.  The  river  ran  swiftly  and  the  water 
was  deep.  The  engineer  knew  nothing  about  coffer-dams, 
caissons,  or  other  methods  which  the  foreign  engineer 
would  have  adopted.  As  the  men  could  not  work  on  dry 
land  to  build  the  bridge,  he  proceeded  to  provide  them  with 
this  requisition.  Hundreds  of  tons  of  spoil  were  dumped 
into  the  river  at  the  point  where  the  pier  was  to  be  erected 
until  an  island  was  formed,  and  on  this  the  necessary 
constructional  work  was  carried  out. 


THE   INVASION    OF  THE   FAR  EAST        299 

Possibly  the  greatest  and  one  of  the  most  important  lines, 
however,  is  the  Pekin-Hankow  railway,  which  is  760 
miles  in  length,  and  which  eventually  will  be  an  im- 
portant link  in  the  great  road  that  is  under  construction, 
whereby  through  communication  will  be  provided  from 
Kowloon  via  Canton,  Hankow,  Pekin,  Mukden  and  Harbin 
to  the  Trans-Siberian  railway.  This  line  was  carried  out 
with  Belgian  and  French  money  for  the  most  part,  and 
;£5, 000,000,  or  $25,000,000,  was  sunk  in  the  enterprise. 
The  undertaking  was  commenced  in  1900,  but  the  Boxer 
Rebellion  interfered  seriously  with  its  progress.  The 
insurrectionists  expended  their  full  fury  upon  the  railway, 
and  inflicted  damage  to  the  value  of  nearly  ,£1,000,000,  or 
$5,000,000,  which,  however,  was  paid  over  by  the  Govern- 
ment as  compensation.  It  has  been  built  cheaply,  and 
does  not  compare,  in  point  of  solidity,  with  the  English- 
built  lines.  At  the  same  time,  however,  there  are  some 
outstanding  engineering  achievements.  The  most  im- 
portant is  the  bridge  across  the  Yellow  River,  which  con- 
sists of  102  spans,  giving  a  total  length  of  nearly  2  miles. 
It  proved  a  particularly  trying  structure  to  erect,  owing  to 
the  treacherous  character  of  the  river-bed,  while  the  scour- 
ing action  of  the  water,  which  is  particularly  severe, 
demanded  elaborate  protective  works  around  the  bottom  of 
the  piers.  After  various  schemes  were  tried  and  had 
proved  futile,  large  mattresses  of  brushwood  interwoven 
with  rushes  were  fashioned,  and  laid  around  the  feet  of 
the  piers,  hundreds  of  tons  of  heavy  pieces  of  stone  being 
dumped  on  these  to  keep  them  in  position.  This  has  been 
found  more  or  less  successful  to  prevent  the  soft  silt  from 
being  washed  away,  and  to  protect  the  supports  to  the 
bridge  from  being  undermined.  The  structure,  however,  is 
scarcely  strong  enough  for  heavy  traffic,  and  consequently 
trains  upon  arrival  at  the  ends  of  the  bridge  have  the  large 
locomotives  uncoupled,  and  are  drawn  across  the  river  by 
special  light  engines  retained  for  the  purpose. 

One  of  the  most  important  lines  from  the  commercial 
point  of  view,  however,  is  the  Canton-Kowloon  railway 


300    RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

stretching  from  Kowloon,  in  British  territory,  to  the  busy 
centre  of  Canton,  and  thence  continued  northward  to 
Hankow  to  provide  connection  with  the  other  great  systems 
of  the  country,  and  also  with  Europe  by  means  of  the 
Trans-Siberian  railway.  This  project  has  passed  through 
many  vicissitudes.  The  British  &  Chinese  Corporation 
received  official  sanction  to  build  a  road  between  Canton 
and  Kowloon  as  far  back  as  1898,  but  the  project  became 
shelved.  An  American  syndicate,  which  had  secured  the 
concession  to  connect  Canton  with  Hankow,  asserted  that 
they  had  secured  rights  to  carry  the  line  from  the  former 
point  to  the  coast.  Such  action  would  have  dealt  a  serious 
blow  to  British  commercial  supremacy,  and  the  money  was 
subscribed  to  buy  out  the  American  concession,  which  in 
the  meantime  had  been  sold  to  a  Belgian  syndicate,  and 
regained. 

The  section  between  Kowloon  and  Canton,  100  miles  in 
length,  was  divided.  The  Hong-Kong  Government  was 
held  responsible  for  the  23  miles  through  British  territory, 
while  the  balance  of  the  line  through  Chinese  territory  was 
carried  out  by  the  Chinese  Government. 

The  English  section  proved  tremendously  difficult.  The 
country  traversed  was  exceedingly  rough  and  mountainous. 
The  difficulties  encountered  proved  so  abnormal  that  the 
cost  of  the  undertaking  has  exceeded  the  original  estimates 
by  nearly  150  per  cent.  Some  idea  of  the  arduous  char- 
acter of  the  work  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  nearly 
2j  out  of  the  23  miles  in  British  territory  are  represented 
by  tunnels.  The  most  arduous  enterprise  of  this  class  was 
the  Beacon  Hill  tunnel,  7000  feet  in  length,  driven  through 
the  heart  of  the  mountain  ridge  that  rises  up  3  miles 
from  the  coast.  The  tunnel  is  perfectly  straight,  and 
ranks  as  the  largest  work  of  its  type  in  the  Chinese  Empire. 

It  is  driven  through  a  depth  of  disintegrated  granite  on 
either  approach,  where  heavy  timbering  became  necessary 
until  the  solid  rock  was  gained.  Water  was  encountered 
and  gave  considerable  trouble.  At  first  labour  was  a 
serious  problem,  as  the  natives  could  not  be  induced  to 


THE   INVASION   OF   THE   FAR   EAST        301 

toil  underground,  and  coolies  had  to  be  imported  from 
India.  After  the  work  was  well  started,  Chinese  labourers, 
who  had  been  working  on  the  South  African  gold-fields 
and  had  returned  home,  were  available,  and  proved  highly 
useful  workmen,  especially  when  the  wrestle  commenced 
with  the  hard,  solid  rock. 

The  tunnelling  task,  however,  was  equalled  by  the  work 
in  the  cuts  and  on  the  fills.  Some  of  the  cuttings  are  of 
enormous  depth,  and  the  engineers  have  had  to  guard 
against  the  danger  of  heavy  landslides,  which,  with  wash- 
outs, are  two  of  the  greatest  menaces  to  the  railway  in 
China.  Heavy  earthworks  were  required,  because  the  line 
follows  roughly  the  coast-line,  which  is  serrated,  and  to 
preserve  alignment  it  was  necessary  to  strike  straight  across 
these  indentations  where  the  water  in  many  places  proved 
to  be  very  deep.  The  treacherous  character  of  the  sea- 
bed, which  for  the  most  part  is  a  silt,  demanded  the  pro- 
vision of  massive  foundations  upon  which  to  raise  the 
grade,  and  months  were  expended  while  a  huge  fleet  of 
junks  dumped  hundreds  of  tons  of  rock  into  the  water. 
Occasionally  the  work  as  completed  was  washed  out  by 
heavy  rains,  while  now  and  again  the  typhoon  left  evi- 
dences of  its  wrath.  A  noticeable  feature  in  the  grading 
was  the  amount  of  work  performed  by  women,  who  had 
recourse  to  their  native  basket  slung  on  a  pole  for  the 
conveyance  of  excavated  earth  to  the  fills. 

The  railway,  however,  has  been  built  upon  the  most 
solid  lines,  and  although  its  cost  has  proved  so  high,  the 
money  appears  to  have  been  expended  to  advantage.  The 
traffic,  although  not  so  extensive  as  it  will  be,  is  increasing 
promisingly,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  when  Hankow  is 
reached  a  heavy  volume  of  business  will  flow  over  this 
highway.  The  Chinese  are  proceeding  with  their  section, 
and  it  is  anticipated  that  not  many  years  will  elapse  before 
the  two  points  are  connected. 

The  French  engineers  are  erecting  monuments  to  their 
railway  engineering  skill  in  the  Flowery  Land,  the  province 
of  Yun-nan  being  the  centre  of  their  activity.  The  Yun- 


302    RAILWAY   CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

nan  railway  experienced  a  very  chequered  career  through 
its  early  stages,  for  in  endeavouring  to  connect  the  French 
possession  of  Lao-Chay  with  Yun-nan-Sen,  the  capital  of 
the  province,  they  had  to  break  down  enormous  obstacles. 
The  country  is  exceedingly  mountainous,  the  height  of  the 
ridges  being  paralleled  by  the  depth  and  precipitous  nature 
of  the  gorges.  Still  the  heavy  and  extensive  bridging 
necessary  proved  no  deterrent  to  the  French  bridge- 
builders,  who  are  masters  in  this  art,  as  the  many 
remarkable  structures  in  France  testify  conclusively. 

The  one  factor  to  be  feared  seriously  was  the  climate. 
This  corner  of  China  is  one  of  the  most  unsalubrious  in 
the  whole  empire.  Even  the  natives  cannot  withstand  it, 
and  their  ranks  are  decimated  heavily  by  tropical  diseases. 
The  labour  question  was  one  of  everlasting  perplexity,  and 
the  promoters  of  the  enterprise  found  that  skilled  workmen, 
even  of  north  China,  evinced  no  desire  to  contribute  to  a 
distinguishing  feat  amid  such  miasmatic  surroundings. 
The  absence  of  transport  facilities  hit  the  undertaking 
sorely,  and  the  engineers  were  compelled  to  make  the  best 
avail  they  could  of  the  existing  vehicles  of  conveyance — 
mules  and  the  heads  of  natives. 

The  most  difficult  section  of  the  line  was  in  the  valley 
of  the  Namiti.  Here  it  was  a  stern  fight  for  supremacy 
with  physical  obstacles  for  mile  after  mile.  The  weight 
and  dimensions  of  every  article  had  to  be  restricted  within 
severe  limits  to  facilitate  handling  and  carriage  by  the 
primitive  systems  extant,  and  when  the  question  comprised 
the  component  parts  of  steel  bridges,  the  problem  demanded 
searching  deliberation.  It  was  found,  however,  that  the 
mules  could  handle  weights  up  to  about  600  pounds,  and 
that  the  natives  could  struggle  along  with  loads  varying 
between  200  and  300  pounds,  but  neither  man  nor  beast 
could  cope  with  anything  exceeding  7  feet  in  length. 

Such  handicaps  would  appear  to  militate  against  the 
achievement  of  any  startling  engineering  performances. 
Yet,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  French  engineers  displayed  a 
striking  instance  of  their  remarkable  ingenuity  and  capacity 
to  meet  awkward  situations.  The  Namiti  gorge  disputed 


v  ill       li 


THE   FAUX-NAMITI    BRIDGE    COMPLETED 

The  structure,  220  feet  long,  spans  a  wedge-shaped  fissure  and  is  350  feet  above  the  water. 
The  bridge  is  approached  on  either  side  through  a  tunnel. 

RAILWAY     RIITT  DIVO     TTV 


THE  INVASION   OF  THE   FAR  EAST        303 

the  progress  of  the  line.  It  is  a  deep,  wide,  V-shaped 
fissure,  one  side  dropping  down  perpendicularly  for  several 
hundred  feet.  The  line  pierced  its  way  through  one  bluff, 
and  had  to  jump  across  the  rift  to  enter  the  opposite  wall 
of  rock.  It  was  a  matter  of  200  feet  across,  and  the  rail- 
level  had  to  be  carried  300  feet  above  the  river  below. 

The  situation  demanded  a  novel  solution.  Erection  by 
false-work  was  out  of  the  question,  as  also  was  a  cantilever 
bridge;  and,  again,  the  question  of  transporting  the 
material  to  the  site  had  to  be  borne  in  mind.  Monsieur 
Georges  Bodin,  the  presiding  engineer  of  the  Parisian 
Socie"te*  de  Construction  des  Batignolles,  however,  rose  to 
the  occasion,  and  evolved  an  unusual  type  of  bridge,  and 
at  the  same  time  elaborated  a  novel  method  of  carrying 
out  its  erection. 

The  bridge  consists  of  two  essential  parts  forming  leaves, 
or  bascules.  When  set  in  position  they  have  the  appearance 
of  a  widely-opened,  inverted  V.  To  carry  out  the  task  of 
erection,  first  a  shelf  was  excavated  in  each  cliff-face  at  the 
requisite  height  to  carry  the  anchorages  below  the  tunnel- 
mouths  overlooking  the  gap.  The  top  members  of  each 
bascule  were  riveted  up,  laid  vertically  flat  against,  and 
fixed  firmly  to,  the  cliff-faces.  From  this  foundation  each 
bascule  was  completed. 

While  the  mantling  of  the  steel-work  was  progressing, 
other  gangs  were  busy  at  work  cutting  out  large  niches  in 
the  cliff-face,  some  height  above  the  tunnel  portals,  and 
on  these  platforms  powerful  winches  were  erected.  Each 
of  these  carried  heavy  chains  measuring  900  feet  in  length. 
The  transport  of  this  essential  piece  of  tackle  was  interest- 
ing. Large  gangs  of  coolies  were  disposed  in  Indian  file 
7  feet  apart,  and  the  chains  were  trailed  over  their  shoulders 
like  a  gigantic  serpent.  In  this  way  they  wound  around 
crags,  climbed  steep  bluffs  and  threaded  narrow  defiles  for 
some  13  miles.  These  chains  were  passed  around  the 
winches  and  the  outer  ends  were  attached  to  the  upper 
points  of  the  bascules. 

When  each  bascule  was  completed  it  was  pinned  firmly 
to  its  anchorage,  the  lashings  securing  each  leaf  of  steel 


304    RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

to  the  rock  face  were  knocked  away,  and  the  two  arms  were 
held  merely  by  the  chains.  Gangs  of  coolies  were  stationed 
at  each  winch  under  the  supervision  of  a  French  engineer, 
and  at  the  word  of  command  the  chains  were  slowly  paid 
out,  causing  the  bascules  to  heel  over  towards  one  another. 
Care  had  to  be  exercised  that  the  lowering  proceeded  evenly 
from  either  side  until  the  two  arms  met  at  a  point.  Work- 
men then  swarmed  up  the  arm  on  either  side  and  rapidly 
drove  in  the  pins  and  rivets  which  secured  the  two  leaves 
firmly  in  position.  The  whole  task  of  lowering  and  securing 
took  only  four  hours,  which  was  a  noteworthy  achievement. 

Two  short  steel  towers  were  now  erected  on  the  haunches, 
or  central  part  of  each  bascule,  to  support  the  steel  deck  of 
the  bridge,  the  members  of  which  were  brought  up  to  the 
mouth  of  the  tunnel  and  launched  by  being  pulled  out  over 
rollers.  With  the  spanning  of  the  Namiti  gorge,  the 
most  difficult  part  of  the  railway  line  was  completed. 
When  the  enterprise  was  undertaken  it  was  computed  that 
the  railway  could  be  completed  for  ,£3,840,000,  or 
$19,200,000,  but  by  the  time  this  gorge  was  spanned  a 
revision  in  the  estimates  showed  that  the  cost  would 
approach  ,£6,620,000,  or  $33,100,000. 

In  Japan,  the  strides  in  railway  development  within  a 
comparatively  few  years  have  been  quite  as  notable  as  in 
China.  In  the  former  country,  however,  the  conversion 
from  primitive  means  of  communication  to  steam  loco- 
motion commenced  at  an  earlier  date,  and  was  attended 
with  greater  success.  As  in  China,  the  railway  invasion 
of  Japan  was  fathered  by  an  Englishman,  Mr.  H.  N.  Lay, 
who  visited  Tokio  as  a  guest  of  the  then  British  Minister, 
the  late  Sir  Harry  Parkes,  in  1869.  He  approached  the 
Government  and  stated  that  he  was  prepared  to  furnish 
the  funds  necessary  to  commence  the  railway  conquest  of 
the  country. 

He  made  his  offer  at  a  peculiarly  appropriate  moment. 
The  military  regency  which  had  ruled  the  country  for  so 
many  centuries  had  drawn  to  a  close,  and  the  new  Govern- 
ment welcomed  the  proposal.  Foremost  among  the  sup- 


THE   INVASION   OF  THE   FAR  EAST        305 

porters  of  the  project  were  the  present  Count  Okuma  and 
the  late  Prince  Ito.  Mr.  Lay  undertook  to  raise  a  loan  of 
;£  i, 000,000,  or  $5,000,000,  and  this  was  accepted,  while 
Mr.  Lay  was  entrusted  with  the  carrying  out  of  the 
scheme.  The  promoter  of  the  enterprise  secured  the 
services  of  Mr.  E.  Morell  as  engineer-in-chief,  and  in  1870 
the  work  commenced.  But  friction  arose  between  the 
English  capitalist  and  the  Government,  who  did  not 
approve  of  the  financier's  methods.  The  agreement  was 
nullified,  and  the  Oriental  Bank  was  established  to  carry 
out  the  undertaking,  Mr.  Morell  being  retained  in  his 
engineering  capacity. 

He  set  to  work  in  grim  earnest.  The  question  of  gauge 
had  to  be  settled  first.  This  vital  detail  was  threshed  out 
in  all  its  bearings,  a  gauge  of  3^  feet  was  selected,  and  the 
building  of  the  first  line  between  Tokio  and  Yokohama — 
a  distance  of  18  miles — commenced.  Once  the  fashioning 
of  the  grade  began,  other  schemes  were  put  forward. 
Among  them  was  a  line  from  Kobe  to  Osaka,  a  distance  of 
20  miles,  which  was  put  in  hand,  while  an  extension  of  the 
latter  line  to  Otsu  was  surveyed.  The  first  railway  in  the 
country  was  opened  on  October  14,  1872,  amid  elaborate 
festivities,  in  the  presence  of  the  Emperor.  Within  six 
years  of  Mr.  MorelFs  arrival,  no  less  than  70  miles  of  line 
had  been  laid  and  opened.  This  was  a  highly  satisfactory 
and  energetic  start  for  a  young  country,  and  the  success  of 
the  experiment  spurred  the  Government  to  more  ambitious 
schemes.  These,  however,  were  doomed  to  temporary 
derangement  owing  to  internal  troubles,  and  the  rebellion 
in  South  Japan  in  1877,  which  drained  the  imperial  ex- 
chequer to  such  a  degree  that  no  funds  were  available  for 
railway-building  operations. 

Among  these  early  enterprises  was  a  trans-insular  rail- 
way to  connect  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  island  with  the 
shores  of  the  Sea  of  Japan,  with  ferry-steamers  on  Lake 
Biwa  to  connect  the  inland  break  in  the  railways  due  to 
that  sheet  of  water.  By  this  time  the  Japanese  engineers 
considered  themselves  competent  to  build  railways,  for  they 


306    RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

had  proved  apt  pupils  under  Mr.  Morell's  training.  Native 
talent  found  its  first  opportunity  on  the  Kioto-Otsu  under- 
taking. This  was  a  peculiarly  difficult  enterprise,  but  the 
Japanese  engineers  rose  to  the  occasion,  though  English 
engineers  were  retained  to  advise  them  and  to  design  the 
bridges.  On  this  line  tunnelling  had  to  be  carried  out,  and 
this  was  the  first  occasion  on  which  the  Japanese  engineers 
were  faced  with  this  work  in  their  own  country.  Still  they 
succeeded  in  complying  with  the  original  plans  to  perfect 
satisfaction,  and  had  the  pleasure  of  learning,  when  the 
road  was  opened  in  1880,  that  the  cost  of  construction  was 
less  than  the  estimates. 

The  completion  of  this  undertaking  marked  the  decadence 
of  the  foreign  engineer  in  railway-building  in  Japan. 
Native  engineers  were  found  to  be  capable  of  fulfilling  the 
difficult  position  of  assistants,  and  consequently  only  a 
few  British  engineers  were  retained  in  the  capacity  of 
advisers  or  consultants. 

Private  enterprise  also  entered  the  field,  and  numerous 
schemes  were  sanctioned.  The  first  of  these  was  the 
Nippon  Railway  Company,  organised  through  the  instru- 
mentality of  the  late  Prince  Iwakura,  a  strong  advocate  of 
railway  expansion,  mainly  for  the  purpose  of  assisting  the 
peers  to  secure  a  profitable  investment.  It  took  several 
years  of  ardent  campaigning  to  enlist  the  sympathy  of  the 
latter  in  such  a  project,  but  at  last  they  fell  victims  to  the 
Prince's  persuasion,  and  the  Nippon  Railway  Company 
was  born. 

This  company  projected  the  building  of  no  less  than 
510  miles  of  railway.  The  two  greatest  contributions  to 
this  scheme  were  the  Tokio-Takasaki  railway,  on  which  the 
Government  guaranteed  a  profit  of  8  per  cent,  for  ten  years, 
and  the  Tokio-Sendai  section,  guaranteed  similarly  for 
fifteen  years.  Numerous  other  private  companies  followed, 
many  of  which  received  liberal  Government  subsidies.  But 
while  private  initiative  was  displaying  considerable  energy, 
the  Government  railway  enterprise  slackened,  and  threat- 
ened to  collaos£,  until  Prince  Yamagata  proposed  that  trunk 


THE    MOST    STRIKING    EXAMPLE   OF   JAPANESE    RAILWAY    ENGINEERING 

The  conquest  of -the  Usui  Pass,  showing  heavy  tunnelling  and  the  rack 
rail  in  the  centre  of  the  track. 


THE   INVASION    OF  THE   FAR   EAST        307 

lines  should  be  laid  along  all  the  main  routes  of  the 
country,  when  the  movement  received  a  fresh  impetus. 
Thus  in  1883  there  was  renewed  national  activity  in  con- 
struction, and  although  many  of  these  undertakings  were 
beset  with  difficulties  of  a  physical  character,  they  were 
pushed  through  to  completion. 

One  of  the  most  notable  of  these  early  achievements 
was  the  Takasaki-Naoyetsu  line,  which  was  commenced 
originally  to  facilitate  the  transportation  of  constructional 
material  for  another  road.  The  engineers  were  baulked 
by  the  Usui  Pass,  and  this  gap  was  left  open,  the  two 
sections  on  either  side  of  the  range  being  opened  for 
traffic  in  1887.  The  intervening  division  was  undertaken 
subsequently,  being  deferred  from  time  to  time  in  the  hope 
that  an  easier  location  than  had  been  plotted  would  be 
found.  Though  the  engineers  searched  the  mountains 
diligently,  they  failed  to  secure  any  improvement  free  from 
heavy  wrork,  and  at  last  the  mountain  division  was  taken 
in  hand.  The  grades  were  so  steep,  however,  that  the 
rack  had  to  be  introduced,  the  Abt  system  being  selected. 
The  engineers  found  this  section  particularly  trying,  as 
they  had  to  drive  no  less  than  26  tunnels  through  moun- 
tain spurs  in  a  distance  of  7  miles,  while  the  deep  clefts  in 
the  mountain's  flanks  called  for  massive  masonry  bridges. 
This  work,  however,  was  completed  in  1893,  and  it  served 
to  provide  through  communication  between  Tokio  and 
Naoyetsu. 

It  is  doubtful  whether  the  iron  road  ever  has  made  such 
a  phenomenal  growth  in  other  parts  of  the  world  within 
a  short  time  as  has  characterised  its  development  in  the 
East.  In  China  there  was  not  a  mile  of  line  in  1877.  To- 
day over  10,000  miles  of  railways  have  been  built,  are  under 
construction,  or  are  projected.  In  Japan  the  network  has 
grown  from  18  miles  in  1872,  to  5,141  miles  at  the 
end  of  the  1910  fiscal  year,  of  which  total  4,634  miles 
belong  to  the  State,  and  597  to  private  companies,  while 
the  former  at  that  date  had  2,790  miles  in  hand,  and  private 
enterprise  about  160  miles, 
x  2 


CHAPTER   XXVI 

THE   CONQUEST   OF  THE  CASCADE  MOUNTAINS 

ALTHOUGH  the  first  trans-continental  railway  across  the 
North  American  continent  tapped  San  Francisco,  this  was 
not  the  route  that  was  advocated  in  the  first  instance. 
Public  fancy  was  inclined  rather  to  the  suggestion  that  the 
Pacific  should  be  gained  more  to  the  north,  at  the  estuary 
of  the  Columbia  River.  This  feeling  was  fostered,  no 
doubt,  because  that  country  loomed  more  prominently  in 
the  popular  eye,  as  a  result  of  the  famous  expedition  of 
Lewis  and  Clark  during  the  years  1804-6,  wherein  they 
trailed  across  the  unknown  corner  of  the  continent  and 
gained  the  Pacific  via  the  Columbia  River.  The  opera- 
tions of  the  Hudson  Bay  Trading  Company  and  its 
numerous  rivals  also  had  served  to  familiarise  the  public 
with  this  great  territory. 

It  is  strange  to  observe  how,  directly  Stephenson  had 
demonstrated  the  possibilities  of  the  steam  locomotive, 
imaginative  minds  drew  pictures  of  stupendous  railway- 
building  achievements  across  great  continents,  broken 
up  by  unsealed  mountains  and  unfathomed  broad  rivers, 
as  if  the  building  of  a  track  for  the  iron  horse  was  the 
same  as  a  child  building  toy  houses  with  wooden  bricks. 
As  a  result  the  North  American  continent  became  criss- 
crossed in  all  directions  by  railways— on  paper— and  it 
was  a  good  thing  for  the  country  at  the  time  that  these 
schemes  never  got  any  farther  than  that  stage. 

Since  Huntington  succeeded  in  his  first  great  effort,  the 
country  has  been  spanned  by  a  round  dozen  lines.  Four 
systems,  however,  stand  out  pre-eminently.  These  are  the 
Northern  Pacific  and  the  Great  Northern,  two  lines  which, 
in  the  first  instance,  were  built  after  the  pioneer  manner, 
and  the  Western  Pacific,  and  the  Milwaukee,  St.  Paul,  and 

308 


CONQUEST   OF  THE  CASCADE   MOUNTAINS     309 

Puget  Sound  roads  respectively,  which  were  constructed 
upon  experience  gained  in  connection  with  the  earlier  lines, 
and  therefore  in  accordance  with  modern  ideas. 

The  Northern  Pacific  undertaking  suffered  strange 
vicissitudes.  It  was  suggested,  discussed  and  anticipated 
for  years  before  it  was  ever  taken  in  hand.  It  was  a  born 
engineer  and  practical  railway-builder  who  drove  the 
scheme  finally  to  a  definite  conclusion.  This  was  Edwin 
F.  Johnson,  and  his  words  carried  weight  because  of  his 
great  engineering  reputation  and  the  soundness  of  his 
views.  He  waged  the  agitation  so  relentlessly  that  the 
Government  at  last  embarked  upon  a  unique  enterprise. 
A  series  of  expeditions  were  inaugurated,  known  as  the 
Pacific  Railway  Surveys,  and  the  men  for  this  task  were 
drawn  from  every  department  of  the  public  service.  Their 
task  was  to  report  upon  the  practicability  of  threading  the 
great  mountain  barriers  to  reach  the  western  sea.  The 
results  of  their  efforts  were  set  out  in  some  thirteen  large 
volumes,  and  they  constitute  possibly  the  most  exhaustive 
work  ever  carried  out  in  regard  to  the  plotting  of  railways 
through  a  country.  But,  like  the  majority  of  such  Govern- 
ment outbursts,  they  represent  so  much  wasted  money : 
they  were  so  valuable  that  they  became  forgotten.  The 
surveyors  and  railway-builders  of  to-day  prefer  to  work  out 
their  own  destinies. 

Then  came  the  Civil  War,  and  that  ruled  any  railway- 
building  enterprise  under  the  aegis  of  the  Government 
completely  out  of  court.  But  Johnson  was  not  to  be  dis- 
suaded from  his  enterprise.  He  laid  his  scheme  before 
many  prominent  railway  men  in  the  country,  and  they 
decided  to  carry  out  the  work.  Johnson  was  deputed  to  act 
as  chief  engineer,  and  was  urged  to  locate  the  line. 

In  1870  the  task  of  laying  some  2,500  miles  of  track  was 
commenced.  The  mouth  of  the  Columbia  River  was 
selected  as  the  outlet  on  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Work  was 
commenced  simultaneously  from  both  ends,  the  eastern 
terminal  being  near  Lake  Superior.  By  1873  the  line  had 
reached  the  Missouri  River  on  the  east,  and  here  a  pause 


3io     RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF    THE    WORLD 

had  to  be  called  to  erect  a  massive  steel  bridge,  1,400  feet 
long,  50  feet  above  the  river,  which  absorbed  .£200,000,  or 
$1,000,000. 

When  the  first  stretch  of  prairie  line  was  completed,  it 
was  used  only  in  the  summer  months.  There  was  not 
enough  traffic  to  pay  for  the  coal  burned  in  the  locomotives 
during  the  winter,  in  the  estimation  of  the  administration, 
while  they  feared  the  expense  and  losses  that  would  be 
inflicted  by  the  terrible  blizzards  and  snowstorms  which 
rage  in  this  country.  Consequently,  after  the  crops  had 
been  garnered  and  conveyed  to  market,  all  the  engines, 
trucks  and  cars  were  withdrawn  from  service  upon  a  great 
length  of  line,  which  was  abandoned  practically  until 
spring  came  round. 

This  state  of  affairs  continued  until  the  Indians  rose  up 
against  American  law  and  order,  wiped  out  several  men, 
and  precipitated  a  general  reign  of  terror.  The  Govern- 
ment, in  order  to  pour  troops  into  the  disaffected  territory, 
requested  the  working  of  the  railway  during  the  winter 
of  18^6-7,  which  proved  to  be  one  of  the  most  severe  in 
history.  Yet  the  line  suffered  less  from  snow  than  the 
systems  in  the  eastern  States,  and,  moreover,  possibilities 
of  traffic  were  discovered  which  hitherto  had  been  con- 
sidered non-existent.  Needless  to  say,  the  railway  never 
has  been  closed  during  the  winter  since. 

Before  the  railway  had  proceeded  half-way  across  the 
continent,  the  need  for  overhauling  and  relaying  the  first 
part  of  the  track  was  felt.  A  higher  standard  of  construc- 
tion was  therefore  laid  down  for  all  the  new  work.  More- 
over, in  order  that  the  line  should  be  completed  within  the 
shortest  time  possible,  it  was  split  into  large  sections,  and 
the  grade  was  driven  east  and  west  from  several  points 
simultaneously. 

The  mountains  proved  a  severe  stumbling-block  and 
precipitated  great  delay.  The  country  was  so  broken  that 
lofty  timber  trestles  had  to  be  erected  to  be  filled  in  with 
earth  at  a  later  date.  Then  two  large  tunnels  had  to  be 
bored  to  carry  the  track  through  the  Rockies,  one,  the 


ii 


€ 
BUILDING   A   STEEL   TRESTLE   ACROSS   A    RIFT 

The  traveller  is  setting  a  girder  75  feet  long,  and  weighing  20  tons,  into  position 


CONQUEST   OF  THE   CASCADE   MOUNTAINS    311 

Bozeman  tunnel,  being  3,610  feet  long,  and  the  other,  the 
Mullan  tunnel,  3,857  feet  from  end  to  end.  Yet  construc- 
tion proceeded  so  successfully  that  the  links  were  joined 
up  on  September  3,  1883,  the  last  spike  being  driven  in 
Hellgate  Canyon,  Montana.  The  spike  used  for  this 
auspicious  event  was  the  very  first  that  had  been  driven  in 
connection  with  the  line  when  it  was  commenced  years 
before. 

The  railway  has  passed  through  many  financial  tribula- 
tions. On  two  occasions  the  intermediary  of  a  receiver 
has  been  found  necessary.  It  was  hit  by  a  panic  in  its 
very  earliest  days,  and  it  failed  ten  years  after  completion, 
the  second  breakdown  precipitating  one  of  the  worst 
financial  scares  in  the  history  of  the  States.  From  the 
ashes,  however,  a  new  company  was  reconstructed,  a 
bolder  and  more  enterprising  body  of  men  gripped  the 
reins,  the  system  was  pulled  to  pieces  from  end  to  end  and 
rebuilt.  To-day  it  is  not  only  one  of  the  finest  railways 
in  America,  but  one  of  the  most  popular  and  successful  as 
well. 

Running  parallel  with  the  Northern  Pacific  across  the 
continent,  but  some  miles  nearer  the  international 
boundary,  is  another  great  artery  of  steel  which  has 
become  a  great  transportation  force  in  the  United  States. 
This  is  the  Great  Northern,  likewise  built  through  the 
energy  of  one  man,  Mr.  James  J.  Hill,  the  empire-builder 
of  the  Great  American  west.  Mr.  Hill  is  a  born  railway 
magnate,  and  when  he  shook  the  dust  of  his  native  land — 
Canada — from  his  feet,  it  was  merely  because  the  Dominion 
at  that  time  offered  him  no  scope  for  his  energies  and 
initiative. 

His  life  is  one  romance;  a  prolonged  conquest  with  the 
unknown  country,  with  the  railway  as  his  weapon,  and 
with  which  he  has  overcome  tremendous  obstacles.  The 
Great  Northern  was  driven  slowly  across  the  country  from 
the  Great  Lakes.  Advance  was  risky,  as  the  country  tra- 
versed failed  to  promise  an  ounce  of  produce ;  but  whenever 
the  organiser  saw  that  development  in  the  country  ahead 


3i2    RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

was  likely  to  take  place,  he  drove  the  line  forward.  His 
motto  was  that  "the  railway  must  be  a  pioneer,  leaving  the 
settler  to  be  brought  in  afterwards."  He  lost  no  oppor- 
tunity to  gain  revenue.  For  instance,  when  the  mineral 
wealth  of  Montana  attracted  widespread  attention,  he  made 
a  journey  to  Butte.  He  found  that  it  was  costing  the 
mines  £3  Ss. — $17 — per  ton  to  ship  their  copper  to  Omaha. 
He  pondered  on  the  subject,  and  suddenly  announced  his 
intention  to  carry  his  railway  into  Butte.  He  did  so,  and 
the  first  stroke  he  consummated  was  to  transport  the  metal 
to  the  same  eastern  point  at  £i  135.,  or  $8,  per  ton — about 
50  per  cent,  below  the  previous  rate. 

The  desolate  character  of  the  plains  of  Montana,  and  the 
towering  heights  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  which  stood 
right  in  the  way  of  the  line,  were  far  from  being  attractive 
from  the  financial  point  of  view.  Yet  he  was  convinced 
that  traffic  could  be  created,  and  was  fortunate  in  infusing 
his  colleagues  with  his  enthusiasm.  But  if  the  railway's 
future  was  precarious,  that  of  the  settler  was  much  more  so. 
For  some  miles  the  line  ran  through  territory  inhabited 
by  the  Indian,  and  which  the  Red  Man  stubbornly  per- 
sisted in  maintaining  was  his  property.  The  result  was 
that  the  white  man  could  only  live  on  sufferance.  If  he 
stopped  too  long  while  passing  through  the  country  he 
was  told  to  move  on.  Mr.  Hill  relates  an  amusing  instance 
of  Red  determination  to  seize  the  main  chance  at  the  settler's 
expense.  "When  the  settlers  drove  their  cattle  across 
Indian  country  in  order  to  gain  the  railway,  the  Indians 
exacted  a  toll  of  50  cents,  or  2s.  for  the  privilege  of  driving 
the  cattle  across  three  miles  of  their  territory  !  They  even 
wanted  an  additional  amount  per  head — I  don't  remember 
what  it  was — for  the  water  they  drank  while  crossing  the 
Missouri  River  !  " 

Among  the  Rockies  the  engineer  met  with  a  spirited 
resistance,  and  the  result  is  that  the  railway  describes  a 
tortuous  course  as  it  climbs  up  the  one,  and  drops  down 
the  other,  side.  At  places  one  may  stand  on  the  edge  of 
a  cliff  where  the  track  has  been  cut,  and  watch  it  following 


CONQUEST   OF   THE   CASCADE  MOUNTAINS     313 

the  spur  for  miles,  steadily  falling  meanwhile  to  the  head 
of  the  valley,  where  it  describes  a  sweeping  curve  to  wind 
back  along  the  face  of  the  cliff  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
depression.  Straight  across  it  is,  perhaps,  not  more  than 
a  mile  or  so,  but  the  long  detour  of  several  miles  was 
necessary  to  avoid  a  heavier  climb.  The  fight  for  the 
grade  is  emphasised  in  watching  an  approaching  train 
coming  up  the  hill.  It  rounds  the  bluff  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  valley,  two  ponderous  ryo-ton  locomotives 
pulling  and  straining  amid  clouds  of  smoke  and  steam. 
Their  joint  labour  produces  a  speed  of  about  15  miles  an 
hour,  and  the  roar  created  by  the  steam  in  harness  is  heard 
distinctly  across  the  ravine.  One  follows  the  train  on  its 
winding  course,  for  it  is  fully  in  sight  the  whole  time  as 
it  swings  round  the  curve  at  the  end  of  the  valley,  and 
presently  rushes  by  one  with  a  terrible  roar.  Some  twelve 
minutes  have  passed  since  the  train  first  came  into  sight. 

Among  the  Cascades  the  spectacle  is  more  impressive. 
Travelling  westwards,  the  train  pauses  at  the  mountain's 
summit,  and  an  electric  locomotive  is  attached  to  haul  the 
cars  through  the  Cascade  tunnel,  a  bore  as  straight  as  an 
arrow  through  the  mass  of  rock  for  three  miles.  In  ten 
minutes  the  train  regains  daylight,  and  the  electric  loco- 
motive makes  way  for  a  ponderous  lyo-ton  vibrating  mass 
of  steel  and  steam  for  the  downward  descent.  When  the 
railway  was  first  opened,  the  crest  of  the  range  was  over- 
come by  a  big  switch-back,  but  it  did  not  meet  with  official 
satisfaction,  so  it  was  abandoned  in  favour  of  the  tunnel 
driven  through  the  crest. 

Directly  the  engine-driver  releases  the  air-brake  the  train 
commences  to  move.  The  descent  is  at  the  rate  of  116  feet 
to  the  mile,  and,  as  may  be  conceived,  no  steaming  is 
required  to  give  the  train  momentum  down  the  banks — it 
travels  by  gravity  alone,  held  in  check  by  the  powerful  air- 
brake. The  train  plunges  into  a  line  of  snowsheds,  and 
when  it  emerges,  two  tracks  at  different  levels  may  be  seen, 
and  in  the  far  distance,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  valley, 
is  the  black  band  of  steel  writhing  among  the  crags  to  pass 


RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

from  sight  round  a  distant  shoulder.  The  train  swings 
down  the  uppermost  gallery,  crosses  a  lofty  trestle  set 
over  a  rift  on  a  curve,  dives  into  a  tunnel  wherein  a  horse- 
shoe loop  is  completed,  so  that  when  it  issues  from  the 
other  portal  the  train  speeds  along  the  second  track  in  the 
opposite  direction.  Then  it  makes  another  twist  to  swing 
to  the  opposite  mountain  slope.  Looking  back  from  the 
lowest  level,  the  line  can  be  seen  cutting  three  ugly  gashes 
among  the  trees  clothing  the  mountain  flanks. 

The  construction  of  this  series  of  loops  was  exciting,  and 
dangerous  to  the  navvies,  as  one  of  their  number  related 
to  me.  Excavation  was  carried  out  on  the  two  levels 
simultaneously,  but  those  on  the  lower  terrace  had  to 
maintain  a  vigilant  eye  and  a  keen  ear.  Huge  ballast 
cars  were  hauled  on  to  the  upper  gallery  loaded  with  debris, 
and  they  shot  this  over  the  side  to  build  up  the  grade. 
The  result  was  that  the  men  below  were  subjected  to  a 
heavy,  intermittent  bombardment,  for  massive  pieces  of 
rock  were  among  the  spoil.  These,  given  a  start  down- 
hill, bounced  from  point  to  point  with  terrific  force,  until 
they  crashed  into  the  depths  of  the  canyon.  The  men  had 
to  dodge  these  missiles  as  best  they  could.  Sometimes 
they  were  lucky ;  at  others  they  were  not,  and  many  a  man 
received  a  nasty  wound,  a  jarring  blow,  or  a  broken  limb 
from  a  piece  of  rock  in  flight.  Accidents  from  this  cause 
were  numerous,  and  fatalities  were  not  infrequent. 

When  the  Western  Pacific  was  projected  it  was  decided 
to  profit  from  the  mistakes  made  on  the  early  lines  in  the 
first  instance.  Grades  in  particular  were  to  be  kept  down, 
especially  among  the  mountains,  where  a  maximum  rise 
of  i  in  100  was  only  to  be  allowed.  This  line  completes 
the  original  idea  in  connection  with  the  Denver  &  Rio 
Grande  line  by  giving  the  latter  an  outlet  from  Salt  Lake 
City  to  the  Pacific  at  San  Francisco. 

The  railway  is  725  miles  in  length,  and  it  was  split  into 
three  sections  for  constructional  purposes.  The  first  ex- 
tended from  Salt  Lake  City  to  Oroville  at  the  Pacific  foot 
of  the  Sierras  main  range,  the  second  from  the  latter  point 


BUILDING    THE   BIGGEST    EMBANKMENT   ON    RECORD    BY    HYDRAULIC    SLUICING 


THE  "MERRY-GO-ROUND"  DEVISED  TO  EXPEDITE  RAISING  AN 

EMBANKMENT    I2O    FEET    HIGH 


A    LOFTY    EMBANKMENT    IN    COURSE    OF    CONSTRUCTION.       IN    THE    CENTRE 
IT    IS    120    FEET    HIGH.       CONSTRUCTION    CAMP    IN    FOREGROUND 

A    NOVEL   EXAMPLE   OF   THE    RAILWAY   BUILDERS'    INGENUITY 


CONQUEST   OF   THE  CASCADE  MOUNTAINS     315 

to  Oakland  on  the  coast,  while  the  third  was  a  trying  short 
section  right  down  to  the  wrater's  edge-  at  San  Francisco 
from  Oakland.  Building  was  carried  out  on  the  three 
divisions  simultaneously.  Remarkable  enterprise  was  dis- 
played by  the  liberal  resort  to  any  new  time-  and  labour- 
saving  methods  and  implements.  In  the  San  Diablo 
Range  the  path  of  the  track  was  interrupted  by  a  depres- 
sion 123  feet  deep  and  1,120  feet  wide.  That  hollow  had 
to  be  filled  to  preserve  the  grade.  To  expedite  the  task,  an 
ingenious  tool  was  devised.  This  was  an  electric  scraper, 
and  the  idea  was  to  pull  this  down  the  side  of  the  moun- 
tain, thereby  removing  several  tons  of  earth  at  a  time,  and 
to  shoot  it  into  the  gulch.  But  the  scraper  did  not  come 
up  to  expectations.  Breakdowns  were  so  frequent  that  at 
last  it  was  dismantled  in  disgust  and  thrown  on  one  side 
to  rust.  Then  another  ingenious  idea  was  tested.  This 
was  called  a  "merry-go-round,"  something  very  similar 
to  a  roundabout.  It  comprised  a  revolving  table  overhang- 
ing the  edge  of  the  dump  or  embankment.  A  track  was 
laid  on  the  circumference  of  this  turntable  forming  a  loop. 
The  laden  trucks  were  run  round  this  curve  and  their 
contents  were  shot  overboard  at  the  point  desired,  the 
empties  continuing  round  the  loop  to  the  track  to  return 
to  be  refilled.  The  advantage  of  this  arrangement  was  that 
the  spoil  could  be  discharged  just  where  it  was  wanted 
much  more  quickly  and  easily  than  by  the  ordinary  method, 
where  the  cars  are  pushed  to  the  edge  of  the  temporary 
track,  emptied  and  then  pulled  back.  As  the  bank  grew 
outwards  across  the  valley,  the  merry-go-round  was  pushed 
forwards,  so  that  it  always  stood  on  the  brink  of  the 
earthwork. 

Among  the  mountains  some  magnificent  work  was  ac- 
complished. As  the  directing  engineer  remarked  to  the 
writer,  it  was  a  stiff  problem  to  descend  the  western  flanks 
of  the  Sierras  with  a  i  per  cent,  grade.  The  line  crosses 
the  mountains  2000  feet  lower  than  the  Central  Pacific,  and 
one  advantage  is  that  there  are  no  snowsheds  anywhere. 

When  one  sees  how  rigorously  the  maximum  grade  has 


3i 6    RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

been  guarded  one  marvels.  The  mountains  are  negotiated 
through  Feather  River  Canyon,  which  is  a  duplicate  of  the 
Kicking  Horse  Pass  that  carries  the  Canadian  Pacific 
main  line  down  to  the  coast.  The  canyon  is  entered  at 
Oroville,  and  for  almost  100  miles  the  line  rises  steadily 
at  52  feet  per  mile,  following  the  river  until  it  at  last  gains 
an  altitude  of  4,817  feet.  But  hugging  the  river  causes 
the  line  to  meander  very  tortuously,  for  the  waterway 
zigzags  like  the  teeth  of  a  saw. 

Moreover,  Feather  River  is  a  fearsome  waterway.  In 
its  calmest  moods  it  rushes  along  swiftly,  but  when  swollen 
by  the  melting  snows  and  countless  mountain  brooks  it 
thunders  and  boils  like  a  whirlpool.  To  escape  the  fury 
of  the  waters  the  track  had  to  be  laid  well  up  the  mountain- 
side, and  where  a  fork  of  the  river  is  crossed,  a  massive 
metal  bridge  had  to  be  built  for  the  reason  advanced  by  the 
engineer  that  "  Nothing  but  steel  could  be  used  with  safety 
when  the  river  is  in  full  flood." 

Curiously  enough,  although  Feather  River  Canyon  had 
never  before  been  selected  as  a  passage-way  through  the 
mountains  for  the  iron  road,  it  was  favoured  by  the  Indian 
as  being  the  easiest  passage  through  the  Sierras.  Theodore 
Judah  had  noticed  its  advantages  for  the  first  trans-conti- 
nental. But  the  Red  Man's  trail  was  along  the  opposite 
bank  to  that  preferred  by  the  railway.  At  first  sight  it 
would  appear  as  though  the  surveyors  might  have  profited 
advantageously  from  the  sagacity  of  the  aborigines,  but 
they  declined  to  do  so  for  a  striking  reason.  The  locaters 
had  to  pay  due  respect  to  the  snowfall  and  the  paths  of 
avalanches.  In  such  a  gorge  the  former  may  be  only  a 
few  inches  on  one,  and  as  many  feet  on  the  other  side, 
and  the  dangers  from  slides  are  proportionate.  Such  con- 
ditions prevail  in  this  canyon.  The  bank  selected  by  the 
engineers  is  exposed  to  the  sun  throughout  the  day,  and 
the  snowfall  is  very  slight,  whereas  on  the  other  and 
shaded  bank  it  is  very  severe. 

In  ascending  the  canyon,  very  heavy  development  work 
had  to  be  carried  out.  At  one  point  a  huge  loop  had  to  be 


CONQUEST   OF   THE  CASCADE  MOUNTAINS     317 

described  on  the  mountain-side,  and  the  summit  negotiated 
by  a  long  tunnel  beneath  the  Beckwourth  Pass.  The  latter 
acts  as  a  funnel  or  shaft  for  the  warm  "  Chinook  "  winds, 
which,  entering  the  pass,  melt  the  snow  almost  as  soon  as 
it  falls.  Consequently,  on  this  section  snow  is  an  insig- 
nificant enemy,  and  does  not  strike  such  terror  into  the 
hearts  of  the  railway  authorities  as,  say,  on  the  Canadian 
Pacific,  or  the  Overland  route.  The  records  at  Beckwourth 
give  the  maximum  depth  of  snow  as  24  inches,  so  that 
Boreas  will  be  kept  within  bounds  very  easily  by  an 
ordinary  snow-plough.  By  placing  the  track  well  below 
the  snow-line,  and  with  the  assistance  of  the  kindly 
Japanese  warm  wind,  the  heavy  expense  of  snowsheds  has 
been  avoided. 

This  is  no  mean  saving  either,  for  in  many  cases  the 
cost  of  building  these  protective  sheds  has  been  more  per 
mile  than  the  railway  itself  sheltered  within.  On  one  line 
the  average  cost  of  this  protection  is  ;£  15,000  per  mile, 
and  it  is  necessary  for  40  miles  ! 

On  the  eastern  sides  of  the  mountains  the  railway  runs 
into  the  ill-famed  Humboldt  River  territory,  which  has 
proved  a  thorn  in  the  sides  of  many  railway-builders. 
This  fine  waterway  at  times  bursts  its  bonds,  floods  the 
country,  and  finally  follows  a  new  course.  In  order  to 
avoid  any  troubles  from  this  cause,  the  line  was  kept  well 
clear  of  the  district,  though  it  involved  many  artificial 
works  such  as  bridges,  embankments  and  tunnels,  while 
the  river  is  crossed  24  times  in  185  miles. 

Between  the  foothills  of  the  Sierras  and  Salt  Lake  City 
two  other  mountain  ranges  had  to  be  overcome — the 
Pequop  and  Torano  chains  respectively.  A  tunnel  solves 
the  first,  and  a  striking  piece  of  development  work  com- 
passes the  second.  This  is  a  horse-shoe  curve  5  miles  in 
length,  which  rises  gently  eastwards  at  the  prescribed 
maximum  grade.  Had  the  engineers  cut  straight  across 
as  the  crow  flies,  miles  would  have  been  saved,  but  the 
banks  would  have  been  three  times  as  heavy.  The  eastern 
point  of  this  horse-shoe  brings  the  railway  to  the  fringe 


3i 8    RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF    THE   WORLD 

of  the  Salt  Lake  desert,  a  rolling  waste  of  salt  and  borax 
in  which  lies  the  inland  sea  of  the  same  name,  and  whose 
waters  in  the  distant  past  lapped  the  foothills  of  the  Torano 
range.  The  rail  strikes  across  the  desert  in  a  bee-line  for 
43  miles,  the  permanent  way  being  as  level  as  a  billiard- 
table,  with  the  rails  resting  on  a  solid  mass  of  salt,  8  feet 
or  more  in  thickness.  This  marked  the  first  attempt  to 
cross  this  dismal  expanse  by  railway.  Many  a  traveller 
essaying  the  perilous  journey  as  a  shorter  cut  to  the 
country  beyond  has  been  overwhelmed  by  thirst  or  the 
intolerable  heat,  to  lie  down  to  his  last  rest,  his  bones 
afterwards  being  found  bleaching  in  the  glare  of  Old  Sol, 
beating  down  from  a  cloudless  sky. 

One  notable  feature  of  this  road  is  the  tunnels.  There 
are  42  in  all,  aggregating  over  45,000  feet  in  length,  while 
there  are  40  steel  bridges  totalling  a  length  of  9,261  feet. 
In  one  division  among  the  Sierras,  extending  for  a  distance 
of  75  miles  up  the  Feather  River  Canyon,  grading  ran  into 
,£20,000,  or  $100,000,  per  mile.  Altogether  some  40,000,000 
cubic  yards  of  earth  were  handled  to  form  the  grade.  The 
contractors  had  to  spend  ,£20,000,  or  $100,000,  alone  to  cut 
a  wagon-road  in  order  to  transport  supplies  to  their  camps 
along  the  grade. 

Contemporaneously  with  the  construction  of  the  Western 
Pacific  railway,  a  third  line — the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  & 
Puget  Sound — was  being  pressed  across  the  continent  for 
the  purpose  of  bringing  Chicago  and  the  Atlantic  seaboard 
into  direct  touch  with  the  Pacific  ports  of  Seattle  and 
Tacoma  on  Puget  Sound. 

This  great  artery  sprang  from  very  humble  beginnings. 
In  1865  there  was  a  short  stretch  of  line  in  the  State  of 
Minnesota  which,  under  energetic  and  wise  expansion, 
threw  its  tentacles  in  all  directions,  until  by  1908  it  had 
grown  into  a  huge  system  known  as  the  Chicago,  Mil- 
waukee &  St.  Paul  railway,  possessing  7,451  miles  of 
track.  How  it  came  to  launch  out  upon  this  long  reach 
to  the  Pacific  is  an  interesting  story,  typical  of  railway 
development  in  the  North  American  continent. 


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CONQUEST   OF   THE  CASCADE  MOUNTAINS    319 

The  eastern  division  of  the  parent  system  served  an 
absolutely  treeless  country,  though  the  land  was  among 
the  finest  imaginable  for  agriculture.  The  railway  re- 
quired plentiful  supplies  of  timber,  not  only  for  its  own 
needs,  but  also  for  those  of  the  settlers  scattered  along  its 
roads.  Every  foot  of  wood  had  to  be  cut  in  the  far  north- 
west lumber  territory,  and  had  to  be  hauled  for  hundreds 
of  miles  over  a  rival  railway  before  it  entered  the  territory 
served  by  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  St.  Paul  railway. 
Considering  the  enormous  consumption  of  this  commodity, 
the  money  paid  over  every  year  to  the  rival  railway  in 
freight  charges  represented  a  respectable  figure. 

Thereupon  it  was  decided  to  tap  the  forests  and  to  secure 
an  outlet  on  the  Pacific  Coast  at  the  same  time.  Although 
it  was  estimated  that  the  1,400  miles  of  track  necessary  for 
the  purpose  would  cost  about  ^20,000,000,  or  $100,000,000, 
it  was  calculated  that  the  saving  in  freight  charges  for 
hauling  timber  would  defray  the  greater  part  of  the  interest 
on  this  capital. 

Work  was  commenced  in  1906:  on  April  i,  1909,  the 
last  rail  was  laid,  and  the  golden  spike  was  driven  home 
into  its  sleeper,  with  no  more  ceremony  than  if  a  mere 
siding  had  been  completed,  instead  of  a  new  trans-conti- 
nental line,  conforming  with  all  up-to-date  requirements 
as  to  grade,  curvature  and  general  standard  of  work. 

The  completion  of  such  a  project  within  three  years  was 
truly  an  epoch-making  achievement,  and,  as  might  be 
supposed,  a  long  string  of  record-breaking  feats  accom- 
panied its  realisation.  In  36  months  ^"17,000,000,  or 
$85,000,000,  were  expended  in  the  boring  of  tunnels,  the 
erection  of  20  miles  of  bridges,  cuts  and  fills  to  fashion  a 
new  steel  highway,  and  to  pave  it  with  200,000  tons  of 
rails.  Some  days  the  mechanical  track-layer,  with  its  load 
of  sleepers  and  rails,  advanced  so  rapidly  that  5  miles  of 
track  were  laid  between  sunrise  and  sunset. 

Curiously  enough,  this  new  line  was  commenced  from 
the  banks  of  the  same  river  as  signalled  the  commencement 
of  the  first  railway  to  the  Pacific — the  Missouri  River — 


320    RAILWAY    CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

but  at  Mowbridge,  a  point  some  miles  to  the  north.  At 
the  very  commencement  heavy  expense  was  incurred  in  the 
building  of  a  huge  bridge  across  the  waterway,  which  alone 
absorbed  ^400,000,  or  $2,000,000.  It  crosses  North  Dakota 
and  Montana,  where  it  was  no  uncommon  circumstance  to 
encounter  isolated  homesteads,  the  owners  of  which  had 
to  travel  150  miles  to  post  a  letter — a  duty  which,  under 
the  circumstances,  was  performed  about  once  in  6  or  12 
months. 

In  Montana  the  line  drops  into  the  valley  of  the  Yellow- 
stone River  to  cling  to  its  banks.  While  the  river  winds 
in  and  out  in  an  amazing  manner,  the  railway  follows 
practically  a  straight  line  through  the  valley,  and  for  117 
miles  it  is  one  of  the  fastest  stretches  of  track  in  the  whole 
continent,  there  being  an  imperceptible  rise.  On  paper  it 
seems  but  a  simple  task  to  build  such  a  piece  of  straight, 
level  track,  but  in  this  instance  it  proved  very  expensive, 
for  the  river  is  crossed  about  once  in  every  mile,  there 
being  115  bridges  in  the  117  miles. 

After  leaving  the  Yellowstone  River  the  work  became 
more  difficult,  for  three  ranges  of  mountains  had  to  be 
overcome.  The  battle  with  Nature,  which  had  been  fought 
by  the  Southern,  Western,  Northern  Pacific  and  Great 
Northern  railways  respectively,  had  to  be  waged  again. 

At  times  the  preservation  of  an  easy  grade  proved  a 
very  knotty  problem.  The  end  was  achieved  only  by 
prodigious  earthworks,  frequent  tunnelling,  as  well  as 
lofty  trestling  across  the  ravines.  The  curves  were  kept 
very  easy,  galleries  being  cut  in  the  projecting  humps  to 
enable  the  line  to  follow  the  contour  of  the  mountain 
sides,  while  the  summits  were  conquered  by  driving  tunnels 
through  their  crests  at  as  low  an  altitude  as  practicable. 

The  most  noteworthy  tunnel  is  the  St.  Paul  Pass,  and 
here  a  striking  record  was  set  up,  the  mountain  being 
pierced  at  a  greater  speed  than  has  been  achieved  in  any 
previous  undertakings  of  this  character.  It  was  bored  from 
both  ends  simultaneously,  and  although  it  was  solid,  hard 
rock  for  practically  the  whole  of  its  length,  an  average 


CONQUEST   OF  THE   CASCADE   MOUNTAINS     321 

advance  of  some  540  feet  per  month  was  maintained,  the 
highest  rate  of  progress  being  reached  with  a  monthly 
progress  of  732  feet. 

Among  the  Cascades  the  tremendous  ravines  separating 
one  peak  from  another  taxed  the  ingenuity  of  the  engineers 
sorely.  It  was  practically  what  in  railway  parlance  is 
described  as  "cut-and-fill  "  all  the  way;  that  is,  the  digging 
of  deep  cuttings  here,  and  the  raising  of  lofty  embankments 
there.  The  cuts  through  the  shoulders  of  some  of  these 
monarchs  became  quite  respectable  defiles  in  themselves  by 
the  time  the  steam  shovels  had  retired  from  the  scene.  And 
the  cuts  were  equalled  in  their  magnitude  by  the  "fills." 
One,  "Topographers'  Gulch,"  is  exceptionably  notable. 
The  track  creeps  through  a  deep  cutting  on  either  side  to 
the  edge  of  the  mountain,  the  sides  of  which  drop  away 
in  a  steep  slope  to  a  depth  of  282  feet.  At  track  level  the 
gulch  was  800  feet  across.  A  viaduct  was  at  first  suggested 
to  span  the  gap,  but  it  was  found  that  the  approaches  were 
unsuitable  to  such  a  solution  of  the  problem. 

The  engineer  resolved  to  make  a  daring  effort.  He 
would  not  bridge  the  gulf;  he  would  not  go  round  it;  but 
he  would  fill  it  up  !  There  was  plenty  of  material  on  the 
spot  for  the  purpose.  The  question  was  the  quickest  way 
of  accomplishing  this  end.  When  it  is  remembered  that 
a  twenty-storey  building  could  have  been  dropped  into 
that  ravine,  and  that  its  roof  then  would  have  been  only 
level  with  the  proposed  permanent  way,  it  will  be  seen 
that  it  was  a  big  fill  indeed.  How  was  it  done?  Why, 
by  means  of  water  jets — hydraulic  sluicing — being  directed 
against  the  mountain-side,  dislodging  the  earth  and  speed- 
ing it  down  conduits  into  the  depression.  Little  did  the 
western  railway  foreman  anticipate,  when  he  first  suggested 
washing  down  a  hill  to  fill  a  rift  by  means  of  a  hose  as 
already  described,  that  his  much-ridiculed  proposition  ever 
would  be  called  upon  to  fill  up  a  chasm  like  this. 

A  powerful  pumping-plant  was  set  up,  hundreds  of  feet 
of  hose  were  laid  down,  and  fitted  with  huge,  powerful 
nozzles.  Gigantic  and  powerful  streams  of  water  were 


322     RAILWAY    CONQUEST    OF   THE   WORLD 

thrown  against  the  mountain  face,  and  the  debris  thus 
dislodged  was  diverted  into  flumes,  or  wooden  troughs, 
which  emptied  themselves  into  the  valley.  Before  a  yard 
of  debris  was  tossed  into  that  abyss,  ;£  12,000,  or  $60,000, 
had  been  spent.  When  the  full  blast  of  water  was  brought 
to  bear  on  the  face  of  the  hill  the  gravel  rushed  down  into 
the  depression  like  lava  pouring  from  a  volcano  in  eruption. 
The  water  jets  literally  moved  a  hill  into  the  ravine.  In 
the  course  of  a  few  weeks  a  neck  of  solid  earth  stretched 
across  the  abyss,  affording  a  path  for  the  railway. 

The  crossing  of  the  Columbia  River  was  another  heavy 
undertaking,  exceeding  in  character  the  bridge  across  the 
Missouri.  At  this  point  the  river  is  wide,  with  the 
navigable  channel  in  the  centre,  but  there  is  a  heavy  rise 
and  fall  of  the  water  according  to  the  season,  the  feet  of 
the  mountains  on  either  side  being  lapped  when  the  river 
is  in  flood.  The  peculiar  conditions  necessitated  a  high 
structure,  with  massive  stone  piers  supporting  the  steel- 
work. Sixteen  wide  spans  were  required.  The  task  was 
carried  out  by  the  railway  companies'  own  bridge-engineer- 
ing staff,  in  which  class  of  work  they  are  specialists  and 
peculiarly  fitted  to  such  huge  enterprises. 

Such  is  the  story  of  the  Railway  Rush  across  the  United 
States  to  the  Pacific.  Yet  the  public  clamours  for  further 
lines.  The  facilities  extended  already  to  travel  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  seaboards  in  less  than  four  days  have 
served  only  to  cause  the  public  to  emulate  "  Oliver  Twist " 
and  to  ask  for  more. 


INDEX 


ABT  system  of  grading,  255,  307 
Abu  Hamed,  154 
Aconcagua  Peak,  128,  274 

River,  277 

Acre,  Bay  of,  122 

Adelaide,  184,  190 

Adelskold,  Mme.  Gustafva,  260 

Major  C.,  260-62 

Adhesion  traction,  217 

Africa,  railways  of,  79,  139-61 

Cape  to  Cairo  railway,  139- 

61 
Central,  railways  of,  281—8 

French  West,  145 

German  East,  150 

South-West,  79 

— —  Portuguese  East,  281,  282 
South,  the  war,  155 

goldfields,  301 

Air-brakes,  313 

Airolo,  33,  35,  41,  42,  44 
Akasha,  153 
Alaska,  162 

reclamation  of,   102-16 

Albany,  187 

Albert  Nyanza,  Lake,  151,  161 
Alexandria,  154,  158,  159 
Allahabad,  252 

-Fyzerbad  railway,  252 

Allan,  Sir  Hugh,  225 
Alps,  the,  162-3,  170 

the  Southern,  194 

Amarillo  Gorge,  274 
Amazon  River,  129,  270 
America,  South — 

First  trans-continental  railway, 
270 

Laissez-faire  attitude,  14 

Survey  work,  9-11 

World's  highest  line,  128-38 
American  Civil  War,  the,  309 
American  railway  interests,    155, 
183,  293,  300 
Y  2  323 


Amur  railway,  the,  201,  211,  212 

Valley,  209 

Andermatt,  village  of,  42 
Anderson,  Messrs.  J.  &  A'.,  195 
Andes,   the,   9,    128-9,    134,    135, 
137,    i77»    270,    271,    272, 
274,  277,  278 

Transandine  railway,  270,  274 

Animas  Canyon,  170 

Antofagasta  railway,  136,  279 

Arab  raiders,  119,  126-7 

Arabia,  deserts  of,  117 

Argentina-Chile  peace,  275 

Arica,  279 

Arkansas  River,  164 

Arlberg  Tunnel,  the,  88-9,  94,  95 

Armstrong,  Sir  W.  G.,  200,  206 

Arnold,  Bion,  56 

Asia  Minor,  122 

Assling,  97 

Assuan,  158 

Atbara,  154,  159 

Bridge,  154,  156,  157 

River,  154 

Atlin,  in 

Auckland,  194 

Auspoint,  94 

Australasia,  railways  of,  175-97 

Australia,  South — 

Railways,  184-5 

Survey  work,  191-3 
Australia,  West — 

Railways,  176,  186,  187,   189 

Survey  work,  190-92 

Trans-continental  scheme,  190- 
191 

Water-supply,  187-9,  190-91 
Austria,    railway   enterprise,    88, 

90,  95 

Avers  Platz,  163 
"Azure  Dragon,"  the,  289,  296 

Baden-Zurich  railway,  31 


324 


INDEX 


Bahia  Honda,  248 

Baikal,  Lake,  150,  200,  206,  207 

railway,  201 

Baker,  Sir  Benjamin,  293-4 
Baldwin     Company     of     Phila- 
delphia, 217 

Baltic  Sea,  ice-breakers,  206 
Barrow,  F  W.,  215 
Bathurst,  177 
Batignolles,  303-4 
Batn-el-Ghoul,  the,  124 
Beacon  Hill  Tunnel,  300-301 
Beckwourth  Pass,  317 
Bedouin,  the,  118-21,  126-7 
Beira,  284 
Beirut,  122 
Beit,  Alfred,  149 
Belgian  railway  interests,  150-51, 

295»  299,  300 

Bell,  J.  B.,  252 

Bennett,  Lake,  108-9 

Bennett,  Mr.,  26-7 

Bergen,  262,  263,  267,  269 

Bergen-Christiania  line,  263-9 

Bergsund,  261 

Biaschina  Gorge,  43 

"Big  Hill,"  217,  218,  231-2 

Biwa  Lake,  305 

Blackwall  Tunnel,  55 

Blanc,  Mont,  128 

Blantyre,  282,  283,  287 

Bluden,  90 

Blue  Nile,  the,  156-7 

Bodin,  Georges,  303 

Bogie  principle,  78 

Bolivia,  railways  of,  279-80 

Borneo,  British  North,  4 

Bossi,  engineer,  42 

Boulder  River  Canyon,  172 

Box  Tunnel,  23  .;&'-. 

Boxer  Rebellion,  the,  299 

Bozeman  Tunnel,  310-11 

Bramstone  Tunnel,  24 

Brandt    hydraulic    drills,    89-90, 
98,  265 

Bray  Head,  23-5 

Brazil — 
Brazilian-Portuguese  labourers, 

223 

Configuration,  216 
Leopoldina  system,  214-23 

*'  T^t-irl rra        T    it-»c*    "       XT^-w^T       *7^,-»1 


Bridge    Line,' 

196-7 
Bridges — 
Qirder,  221 


New    Zealand, 


Bridges  — 

Rack  system,  221 

Steel,  260 
Bristen  Tunnel,  44 
British  and  Chinese  Corporation, 

296,  300 
British  Central  Africa  Co.,  282 

-  Columbia,  no,  224,  239 

-  North  Borneo,  4 
Broken  Hill,  147,  149,  150 
Bromma,  267 

Brunei,  work  in  Ireland,  22-5 
Buenos    Aires    and    Pacific    rail- 

way, 270 

Buffalo,  55,  70-71 
Bukana,  151 
Buluwayo,  141,  142 
Burma,  Gokteik  Viaduct,  250 

-  Railway  Co.,  254 

-  Upper,  bridges,  254 
Butte,  312 

Cairo,  139,  150,  151,  158 

Caissons,  182-3 

California,  the  gold  rush  to,  60, 

69 

Callao,  129,  130,  138 
Camels,  transport  by,  190-2 
Campos,  221 
Canada  — 

Eastern,  the  railway  in,  225 

Fighting  gangs,  28 

First  trans-continental,  224-39 

Muskeg  country,  18,  226-9 
Canadian  Pacific  railway,  316-17 
"Big  Hill,"  217,  218,  231-2 

Chinese  labour  on,  15 

Eagle  Pass,  238 

Gold  Range,  238 

Government  aid,  225-6 

Kicking  Horse  Pass,  232-4 

Muskeg    country,     difficulties, 
226-9 

Selkirk  Range,  234-8 
Cantilever  principle,  144,  239 
Canton,  299,  300 
--  Kowloon  railway,  295,  299- 

301 

Cape  of  Good  Hope,  212 
Cape  to  Cairo  railway  — 

Northwards  from  Cape  Town, 


Southwards  from  Cairo,  152-61 
Cape  Town,    139,   141,   145,    147, 
150,   161 


INDEX 


325 


Carnarvon,  79 
Cascade  Range- 
Grading,  21,  321 
Snowsheds,  24 
Tunnelling,  25,  27,  193,  313-14, 

321 

"Catch  points,"  23 1 
Cathedral  Mountain,  233 
Cenis  Tunnel,  31-2,  35,  36,  88- 

90,  217 

Central  Otago  railway,  196-7 
Central   Pacific  railway,   63,   65, 

70,  198,  315 

Central  railway  of  Peru,  136 
Central    Siberian    railway,    200, 

203 

Champlain     and    St.     Lawrence 
railway,  46 

Lake,  46 

Chang-Tien-Yow,  297 
Chat  Moss,  17 
Chenab  River,  252 
Chepstow  bridge,  23 
Cheyennes,  the,  67-8 
Chicago,  54,  58,  241,  318 

&    North- Western    railway, 

162 

Milwaukee  &  Puget  Sound 

line,  308,  318-22 

Milwaukee  &  St.   Paul  rail- 
way, 318,  319 
Chichli,  291 
Chicla,  135 
Chikwawa,  282 
Chile,  274-5 
Chilian  labour,  277 
Chilkoot  Pass,  104 
China- 
Early  days  in,  289-96 
Eastern  Chinese  railways,  211 
Frontier,  198,  211-13 
Mileage  of  railways,  289,  307 
Modern  developments,  297-307 
Trade  guilds,  15,  16 
Chinde,  281,  282,  284 
Chinese  labourers,  14-16,  69,  210, 

212 

Chinook,  the,  103,  317 
Chiromo,  283,  285,  286,  287 
Chisso,  workman,  42 
Chosica,  130 
Christchurch,  194 
Christiania,  262-4,  269 
Christo  Redentor,  statue  of,  275 
Chungzoune  River,  255,  257,  258 


Circum-Baikal  line,  204-9 

Cleveland  Engineering  &  Bridge- 
building  Co.,  144,  157 

Col  de  F  re*  jus.     See  Cenis  Tunnel 

Colladon,  Prof.,  36 

Collie  district,  186-7 

Colorado,  mountains  of,  162-3 

Columbia  River,  6,  28,  234,  250, 
308,  309,  322 

Congo  Free  State,  149 

River,  150,  151 

Congolo,  151 

Constantinople,  122 

Coolgardie — 

Condensing  plant,  188-9 
Gold  rush,  186,  187 
Railway  enterprise,  190-91 

Cooper,    Fenimore,      The    Path- 
finder, 66 

Cordilleras,    the,    128,    129,    130, 
132,  274 

"Corduroying,"  18 

Corean  labour,  212 

Corkscrew  grading,  124-5,233 

Cornwall,  22 

Council  Bluffs,  62,  63,  65 

Cragellachie,  238 

Cromer,  Lord,  152 

Cuba,  trade,  240-41 

Cumbres  Pass,  169 

Curzon   railway   bridge    (Allaha- 
bad), 252-4 

Dakota,  North,  229,  320 
Dallas,  170 
Dalnaspiel,  173 
Dalwhinnie,  173 
Damascus,  117,  118,  121,  122 

Repairing  works  at,  126 

Darling  Mountains,  189 

Range,  186,  188,  189 

Upper,  187 

Darlington,  144 

Dartmoor,  173 

Dawson,  103,   in 

Deane,    Henry,    M.I.C.E.,    180-81, 

191 
Denver,  171,  172,  174 

&    Rio   Grande   railway,    8, 

162,  163,  314 
Deraa,  122    123 

River,  122 

Dervishes,  153,  156 
Des  Moines,  65 
Deuchars,  G.,  257 


326 


INDEX 


Dhorabhave  River,  250 

Viaduct,  250 

Diamondopolis,  141 

Dickson,    Norman    B.,    M.I.C.E., 

215,  218-23 
Dinas,  79 

Dovrejelf  Range,  263-4 
Drave  River,  94 
Dublin  &  South-Eastern  railway, 

23 

Dufile,  160-61 
Dunedin,  196 
Durant,  Thomas  C.,  60,  62,  65, 

70 
Dyaks,  5 

Eagle  Pass,  7,  238 

River  Canyon,  171 

East  Indian  railway,  250 

Eastern  Chinese  railways,  211 

Edward,    King,    Victoria   Bridge 
opened  by,  51 

Egypt- 
British  penetration,  119 
Railways  in,  152-3 

Eiffel  Tower,  169 

Ekaterinburg,  199 

El  Misti,   137 

El  Obeid,  157 

Electric  drills,  96,  100 

Electrical    system,     single-phase 
alternating  current,  56 

Elizabethville,  150 

Els  wick,  200 

Ermak,  icebreaker,  206 

Espirito  Santo,  214 

Euphrates  Valley,  123 

"  Everglades,  The,"  241-6,  249 

Fades  Viaduct,  145 
Fairbanks,  112 
Favre,  L.,  34,  39,  40,  42 
Feather  River,  316 

River  Canyon,  316,  318 

Fell  system,  the,  217 

Festiniog    Toy    railway,    76-79, 

Field,  231 

"Fighting  gang,"  28 

Fires,  forest,  235-6 

Fjeldberg,  264 

Flagler,  Henry,  240,  241,  240 

"Flagler's  Folly,"  242,  249 

Flat  Creek  Viaduct,  197 


Floods,  219-20,  251 

Florida  East  Coast  railway,  240- 

49 

Formosa,  291 
Fort  Augusta,  190 

Johnston,  287 

Fox,  Sir  Douglas,  and  Partners, 

285 

Foxwood  Tunnel,  23 
France,    railway    interests,    295, 

299,  301-14 
Fraser,  James,  M.I.C.E.,  181-2 

River  Canyon,  239 

Fremantle,  193 

Fremont  Pass,  168-9 

Fritsch,  Prof.,  33 

Fung    Shui,    influence    of,    289, 

296 

Galera  Tunnel,  135-6,  138,  274 
Gales,  Robert  R.,  M.I.C.E.,  253 
Galilee,  Sea  of,  123 
Ganges,  bridges,  252,  253 
Garry,  Fort,  224 
Gauges — 

Metre,  215 

Narrow-gauge  system,  78,  105, 
in 

Standard,  267 

Uniform,  need  for,   176 

Wide,  48 

Gellivare  iron  mines,  260 
Gelpke,  M.  O.,  C.E.,  33 
Geraldton,  186,  187,  188,  189 
German  railway  interests,  33,  295 
Girouard,  Sir  Percy,  153 
Gjeilo,  268 
Gloggnitz,  92 
Godavari  Bridge,  250 

River,  250 

Gokteik  Viaduct,  250,  254-9 
Gold  Range,  the,  6,  238 
Gold  rush  to — 

California,  60 

Colorado,  163 

Klondyke,  103,  no 

San  Francisco,  65 
Golden  Gate,  the,  63,  65 

Horn,  64 

Gondoroko,  158,  160 
Goschenen,  35,  41 
Gota  Bridge,  260-62 

River,  260-61 

Gothenburg,  262 
Gould,  Jay,  47 


INDEX 


327 


Goz  Abu  Guma,  157 

Grading,    Corkscrew,    43,    124-5, 

195.  233 

Switchback,  219 

Zigzag,  177-81,  187,  219 

Grand    Trunk    railway,    48,    54, 

58»  r43 

Grand  Trunk  Railway  Co. ,  47 
Grant,  General,  68-9 
Grattoni,  engineer,  32 
Gravehals  Tunnel,  264-6 
Great  Britain,  railway  interests, 

91,    104,    144,    147,    154-5, 

157,  214-23,  254,  276,  295, 

300 

Lakes,  the,  47,  58,  162,  311 

Northern    railway,    21,   308, 

311-14 

Salt  Lake,  70 

— —  Wall  of  China,  297,  298 

Western  railway,  173 

"Zigzag,"  the,  179-80 

Greymouth,  194 
Guilds,  Chinese,  15,  16 
Gulf  Stream,  103 
Gwaai  River,  142 

"Hadj,"  the,  117 

Haifa,  122 

Haifa,  158 

Hamilton,  47,  48 

Hand-signalling,  202 

Hanging  Bridge,  the,  164-7,  169 

Hankow,  299-301 

Harbin,  293,  299 

Harriman,  E.  H.,  28-9,  72 

Harte,  Bret,  70 

Havana,  241 

Hawkesbury  Bridge,  182 

River,  182 

Head  hunters,  4 

Hector,  231 

Hedjaz  Peninsula,  123 

railway,  1 17-27 

Hellgate  Canyon,  311 
Hell  wag,  M.,' 40-42,  195 
Hereros  rebellion,   the,  81-2,  84, 

85 

Heritier,  Grand  Duke,  200 
High  Nile  level,  158 
Hill,  James  J.,  28,  29,  185,  311 
Hindoos — 

As  traders,  287 

Daily  wage,   13,  14 
Hoang-ho  River,  271 


Hobson,  G.  A.,  144,  147 

Joseph,  54 

Hodges,  James,  50 
Hollenburger  River,  94 

Viaduct,  95 

Holy  railway  to  Mecca,  117-27 
Hooghley  River,  250-51 
Horn,  Cape,  60,  63,  65,  128,  129 
Home,  W.  C.  Van,  236,  237 
Hudson  Bay,  224,  234 

Trading  Co.,  308 

Humboldt  River  territory,  317 
Huntington,  Collis  P.,  59,  60,  62, 

65,  72,  308 
Huron,  Lake,  54 
Huvudnas  Falls,  260 
Hydraulic  drills  (Brandt),  88-90, 
98,  265 

shield,  the,  54,  89 

•  sluicing,  20-21,  321-2 

Ibex,  163 

Icebreakers,  200,  206-7 
Ichine  River,  202 
Illecillewaet  River,  238 
Implements,  16 
Inca,  274 
India — 

British,  railway  bridges,  250-59 

Rivers  of,  250-51 
Indians — 

Missouri,.  64-9,  312 

Pawnee,  friendly,  66,  68 

Rising,  1876-77,  310 

Sioux,  67 

Trails,  234,  316 
Indus,  250 

Infiernillo  Bridge,  134 
Innsbruck,  90 

International  Conference,  the,  40 
Ireland,  Brunei's  work,  23-5 
Irkutsk,  200,  201,  205 
Irtych  River,  201-3 
Isonzo  Gorge,  97 
Italy,   railway   interests,    33,    35, 

82-85,  2I7 
Ito,  Prince,  305 
Iwakura,  Prince,  306 

Japan — 

Modern  developments,  297-307 
Sea  of,  Insular  railway,  305 
South,  rebellion  in,  305 

Jardine,  Matheson  &  Co.,  Messrs., 
290,  291,  295-6 


328 


INDEX 


"Jaws  of  Death,"  the,  237 
Johnson,  Edwin  F.,  309 
Jordan,  River,  122,  123 
Jubilee       Bridge       across       the 

Hooghly,  250,  251 
Judah,  Theodore  D.,  61-4,  316 
Julian  Alps,  the,  93,  97 
Jumna  River,  253 

Kafue  Bridge,  147 

River,  147 

Kaisim  Pasha,  119-21 

Kalgoorlie,  190,  192 

Kalomo,  145-^6 

Karawanken  railway,  94-8 

Range,  93,  95 

Tunnel,  95,  198 

Katanga,  149 

Kerma,  153 

Key,  Grassy,  247 

Long,  247 

West,  241,  246 

Keys,  the,  242,  247,  248-9 

Khabarovsk,  201,  211,  212 

Khartoum,  153,  156,  158,  160 

Bridge,  157 

Khilkoff,  Prince  M.  I.,  207-8 

Kicking   Horse   Pass,    225,    230, 
232-4,  316 

Kilsby  Ridge,  19 

Tunnel,  19 

Kimberley,  141 

Kinambla  Valley,  181 

Kinder,  C.  W.,  292,  297   ' 

Kindu,  151 

Kioto-Otsu  line,  306 

Kitchener,  Lord — 
Australian  railways,  on,  190, 193 
Expedition  against  the  Mahdi, 

153-4 

Kituta,   149-50 
Kivu,  Lake,  150 
Klagenfurt,  94 
Klaus,  94 

"Klondike,"  103,  108,  no-n 
Knight's  Key,  249 
Kobe,  305 

Kobe-Osaka  line,  305 
Koppel,  Arthur,  80 
Kotlass,  212 
Kowloon,  299,  300 
Krasnoiarsk,  199,  206,  207 
Krems  Valley,  94 

La  Paz,  136,  279-80 


La  Prairie,  46,  58 
Labour — 

Brazilian  Portugee,  the,  223 

Cape   to   Cairo,    native   record 
day's  work,  145-6 

Chilian,  277 

Chinese,  12-16,  223,  301 

Female,  301 

Indian  coolie,  293 

Italian,  82-5 

Siberian  exile,  210,  212 
Landore  Viaduct,  22 
Land's  End,  244 
Landslides,  138,  219-20 
Lan-ho  Bridge,  293-4 

River,  293 

Lansdowne  Bridge,  250 

Lao-Chay,  302 

Las  Cuevas,  274,  275 

Lawley,  A.  L.,  147 

Lay,  H.  N.,  304 

Leadville,  163-4,  168-9 

Lebarge,  Lake,  104 

Leopoldina  railway,  the,  214-23 

Leslie,     Sir     Bradford,     K.C.I.E., 

M.I.C.E.,  251,  282-3,  287 
Lewis  &  Clark,  Messrs.,  308 
Li-Hung-Chang,  291-2,  295 
Limbi,  287 
"Limited,"  the,  on  "Big  Hill," 

231-2 
Linz,  94 

Lithgow  Valley,  178 
"Little  Wonder,"  the,  77 
Liverpool,  208 

&  Manchester  railway,  46 

Livingstone,  139 
Lobengula,  141 

London    &    North-Western    rail- 
way, 17,  76 

to  Vancouver  in  the  'fifties, 

224 

Los  Andes,  270,  277 
Lott,  Julius,  89 
Lucerne,  Lake  of,  43 
Luchenza  River,  286 
Lucin  Cut-off,  the,  71-5 

Ma 'an,  122-4 

"  Machilla,"  283 

Madras  North-East  line,  250 

Mafeking,  141 

Mahdi,  the,  119,  152 

Kitchener's  expedition,  153-4 

•  Terms  made  with,  139 


INDEX 


329 


Mahommedanism,  the  Holy  rail- 
way, 117-27 
Maidenhead  Bridge,  23 
Makatote  Gorge,  195 

Viaduct,  195-6 

Mallet  locomotives,  297 
Manchester  &  Liverpool  railway, 

17 

Manchuria,  211,  212 
Marshall  Pass,  168 
Mashonaland,  141 
Matabele,  the,  141 
Vlatecumbe,  Upper  and  Lower,  247 
Matucana,  134 
Maua,  216 
Mecca,  121 

the  Holy  railway  to,  117-27 

Mechanical  percussion  rock-drill, 

36 
Medina,  117,  126 

Saleh,  125 

Meiggs,  Henry,  129,  130-32,  133- 
i35»  270 

"  Meiggs'  V-switch,"  130-32, 

i35»  270 

The  "zigzag  "  system,  177 

Meissner  Pasha,  H.,  121,  124-6 
Melbourne,  184,  190 
Menai  Straits  Bridge,  50 
Mendoza,  270,  273,  275 

River,  271-2,  274 

Meredith,  J.  O.,  243-4 

Metcalfe,  Sir  Charles,  Bart.,  145- 

146,  285 

Metre-gauge,  263,  267 
Mexican  Central,  the,  3 
Mexico,  162 

Native  labour,  13 

Gulf  of,  240,  246-8 

Miami,  240-41,  249 

to  Havana,  Key  West,  241-9 

Miasma,  242-4 

Midland  railway  (W.A.),  187,  189 

Vlinaes,  214 

Minnesota,  318 

Mississippi  River — 

Bridges,  250 

Scouring  of  the,  252 
Missouri  River,  61,  62,  64,  66,  250, 

309,  312,  319,  322 
'  Mixed  trains,"  294 
Mjolfjeld,  268 
Soberly,  Walter,  6,  238 
Moffatt,  David  H.  M.,  171,  172 
'  Moffatt  "  road,  the,  162,  163 


Mollendo,  136,  271,  279 
Mongolia,  beasts  of  burden  from, 

211 

Mont  Cenis  "Fell  "  railway,  217 
Montana,  229,  320 

Hellgate  Canyon,  311 

Mineral  wealth,  312 

Montreal,   railway  enterprise   in, 
46-8 

to  Vancouver,  224 

Morell,  E.,  305,  306 
Morrison,  G.  J.,  290 
Mountain  railways,  the  first,  91-2 

sickness,  9,  136 

Mouraviev-Amoursky,  Count,  198 

Mowbridge,  320 

M'Swadzi  River,  286 

Mudslides,  237 

Muir,  John,  190-91 

Mukden,  293,  299 

Muktar  Bey,  126 

Mules,  Andine,  280 

Mullan  Tunnel,  311 

Munich,  93,  101 

Murchison  Falls,  282 

gold-fields,  188 

Murzzuschlag,  92 
Myssovaia,  201,  206 

Naihati,  250 
Namiti  Gorge,  302-4 

Valley,  302 

Nanking,  296 

Nankow  Pass,  297-8 

Naoyetsu,  307 

Natal  railways,  140,  155 

Neccaraviglia,  workman,  42 

Nevada,  61 

New  South  Wales  railways,  176- 

84,  186,  219 
York,  46,  59,  60,   155,  240, 

241,  255 

York  to  San  Francisco,  15 

.  Zealand  railways,  193-7 

Niagara  Falls,  57 

River  suspension  bridge,  57  - 

58,  H3 

Nicholas  II.,  200 
Nictheroy,  216 
Nijneoudinsk,  199 
Nikolsk,  212 
Nile  River,  154 

Blue,  156-7 

Expedition,  1885-6,  153 

High  level,   158 


330 


INDEX 


Nile  Rapids,  160-61 

steamers,  158 

-  White  Nile,  157-8,  160 

Valley,  150,  152 

Nippon  Railway  Co.,  306 
North  Island  (N.Z.)  Trunk  rail- 
way, 194 

North,  Major  Frank  J.,  66-8 
North  Wales  Narrow  Gauge  rail- 
way, 76-87 

Northampton  (W.A.),  187 
Northern  Pacific  railway,  308-11 

•  crisis,  239 

Northern  railway  (W.A.),  188 
North- Western  State  railway,  252 
Norway,  260 

Trans-Norwegian      railway, 

262 

Norwegian  Eastern  railway  sys- 
tem, 267 

Nyasa,  Lake,  282,  287 
Nyasaland —  . 

Negroes,  283 
Railways,  281-8 

Oakland,  315 
Ober  Villach,  101 
Obi,  200 

River,  201-3,  205 

Ofoten,  260 
Ogden,  75 
Okuma,  Count,  305 
Omaha,  65,  68,  312 
Omaruru,  82,  85,  87 
Omdurman,  153,  154,  157 
Omsk,  199 

Ontario,  Lake,  54,  57 
Oodnadatta,  184 
Opcina  Tunnel,  97 
Ophir  Loop,  170-71 

Mountain,  170 

Orange  Free  State,  140 
Oregon  railways,  28-9 
Orenburg,  199 
Oriental  Bank,  305 
Oroville,  314,  316 
Oroya,  136 

line,  129-38,  177,  271 

Osaka,  305 
Osgood,  J.  O.,  166-7 
Ossouri  railway,  201 
Otago,  196 

Central  railway,  196-7 

Otavi  line,  the,  79 

the  new  "Copperado,"  79 


Otira  Gorge,  194,  195 

-  Tunnel,  194-5 

Otsu,  305 

Ottoman   Government,    the,    and 

the  Bedouin,  118,  119 
Ouguati,  82 
Ovambo  coolies,  83-4 
"Overland  Limited,"  the,  75 
"Overland  Route,"  65-6,  71,  317 

Pacific  Central   railway,   63,   65, 
70,  198,  315 

-  railway  surveys,  309 

-  Western  railway,   308,   314- 
18 

PaBons,  13 

Palestine,    117,   119,   123 

Panama,  Isthmus  of,  65,  240 

Parahybuna  River,  221 

Paramatta,  176 

Parisian  Socie"te"  de  Construction 

des  Batignolles,  303-4 
Parkes,  Sir  Harry,  304-5 
Pauling  &  Co.,  Messrs.,  141 
Pawnee  Indians,  66,  68 
Payment  in  kind,  287-8 
Paznaun  Valley,  90 
Pears,  A.  G.,  288 
Pehtang,  291 
Pekin,  296,  298-9 
--  Hankow  railway,  299 

—  Kalgan  railway,  295,  297 
---  Nanking  railway,  296 
Pennsylvania  Steel  Co.,  254,  255-9 
Penrith,  177 
Pequop  Range,  72,  317 
Perth  (W.A.),  187-9 
Peru,  129 
Peruvian  Central  railway,  136 

-  Corporation  of  London,  135 

-  Southern  railway,  279 
Peto,   Betts  &  Brassey,   Messrs., 

47,  49.  52 
Petropavlovsk,  199 
Petropolis,  216,  221 
"Phantom  Curve,"  169 
Placer  River  Valley,  113 
Poncha,  168 
Ponthierville,   151 
Port  Herald,  2 
286,  287 

-  Sudan,  160 

Portland,  Atlantic  Coast,  29,  48 

Portmadoc,  76 

Portugal,  railway  interests,  295 


151 
81,  282,  283,  284, 


INDEX 


Princeton,  Dartmoor,  173 
Promontory  Range,  70,  71 
Pueblo,  164,  171 

•  and  Arkansas  railway,  164-7 

to  Leadville,  168 

Puget  Sound,  309,  318 

Pullman  car,  the,  on  the  Hedjaz 

railway,  126 
Puno,  136,  279 
Puy  de  D6me,  145 
Pyrhn  Pass,  94 
railway,  94 

Queensland    railways,    176,    182, 
184 

Rack  system,  the,  216,  221,  255, 
273,  274,  277,  279,  307 

Rainhill,  46 

Raiz  da  Serra,  216 

Rangoon,  255 

Red  Sea,  the,  123,  158,  159 

Reinunga  Tunnel,  266-7 

Rejaf,  1 60-6 1 

Resurrection  Bay,  112 

Reuss  River,  35 

Rhodes,  Cecil — 
Cape  to  Cairo  railway,  139-61 
Death  of,  149 

Rhodesia,  141,  284 

North- West,  145 

Riggenbach  system,  the,  216 

Rimac  River,  130 

Rinderpest,  141,  211 

Rio  de  Janeiro,  214,  215 

Bay  of,  216-17 

"Rio   de   las   animas   perdidas," 
170 

"Riviera  of  America,"  249 

Roa,  267,  269 

Robinson,    A.    A.,    the    Hanging 
Bridge,  165-7 

"Rocket,"  Stephenson's,  46 

Rockhampton,  190,  193 

Rocky  Mountains,  the,  68,  136, 
162,  164,  167-9,  J7o»  I72» 
J73>  J93>  23o.  231,  3I2~i3 

avalanches,  5,  6 

Bozeman  Tunnel,  310-11 

• Mullan  Tunnel,  311 

Rogers,  Major  A.  B.,  234 

Rogers'  Pass,  234 

Rollins  Pass,  163,  173-4 

Rosenbach  Valley  ^  95 

Ross,  Alexander  M.,  49,  50,  52 


Rouses 's  Point,  47 
Royal  Gorge,  164-7,  '7° 
Ruapehu,  Mount,  195 
Ruo  Bridge,  285-6 

River,  285 

Russia,  Asiatic,  198 

European,  railways,  199,  205 

Russo-Japanese  War,  212 

Sacramento,  63,  70,  71 
Sahara,  the,  79 
St.  Bernard  Hospice,  163 
St.  Clair  River,  54 


Tunnel,  54-6 

El 


lectrification,  56-7 

St.  Gotthard  Tunnel,  88-90,  129, 
*95»  233J  footpath,  30-31; 
financial  arrangements,  3 1-4; 
hindrances,  34-6 ;  drilling, 
36-7;  labour,  37-8;  water, 
38-9;  deficit,  39;  death  of 
M.  Favre,  40;  borings  com- 
pleted, 41-3;  the  second 
track,  43-5 

St.  John's,  Quebec,  46,  58 

St.  Lawrence,  Victoria  Jubilee 
Bridge,  46-54 

St.  Paul  Pass,  320-21 

railway,  308 

St.  Petersburg,  203,  207 

St.  Pinnock  Viaduct,  22 

Salt  Lake,  61,  71,  72,  73 

City,  71,  164,  171,  314, 

317 

Desert,  318 

Saltash  Bridge,  23 
San  Bartholome",  131 
San  Diabolo  Range,  315 
San  Francisco,  59,  60,  61,  63,  64, 
65,  70,  198,  225,  241,  314,  315 
Sarnia,  54 
Sarras,  153 
Scandinavia — 

Climate,  103 

Snow-ploughs,  260 
Schwarzach  St.  Veit,  101 
Schwitzer,  J.  E.,  i,  233 
Scottish  Highlands  railway,  173 
Seattle,  107,  318 
Selkirk  Range,  the,  6,  234-8 

"Jaws  of  Death,"  the,  237 

Rogers'  Pass,  234 

Snow-sheds,  24,  235-7 

—  Split  fences,  236 
Stoney  Creek  Bridge,  237-8 


332 


INDEX 


Sella,  Lake  of,  42 
Selzthal^  94 
Semmering  Pass,  92 

Range,  91 

Sennar,  156-7 
Severn  Tunnel,  276 
Seward,  112,  113 
Shanghai,  213,  290,  291,  296 
Shanghai  -  Nangchow  -  Ningpo 

railway,  298 

Shanghai-Nanking  railway,  295 
Shanghai- Woosung  railway,  290- 

295 

Shan-Hai-Kuan,  292,  294 

Shellal,  158 

Sher  Shah,  252 

Shir<§  River,  281,  282,  287 

Siberia — 

Central  railway,  200,  203 
Climate  of  Western,  204 
Exiles  as  labourers,  210-12 
Trans-Siberian  railway,  198-213 
Tundras,  the,  18 
Western  railway,  200,  203 

"Siberia,"  disease,  211 

Siberian    Central    railway,    200, 
203 

Sierras  Main  Range,  grading  and 
tunnelling,  314-18 

Simplon  Tunnel,  100 

Sioule  River,  145 

Sioux,  the,  67 

Skaguay,  107,  108,  no,  111-12 

•  railway  from,  103-5 

Slave-trade,  Central  Africa,  282-3 

Smith,  C.  Shaler,  166 

Smith's  Mill,  187 

Snow-plough,  the,  in,   173,  232, 
268-9,  278 

Snow-sheds,  235-7 

Snow-slides,  236 

Snowdon  Station,  79 

Soldier's  Leap,  278 

Sommeiller,  32 

Sone  Bridge,  250 

Sorocht6,  sickness,  9 

South  Boulder  Canyon,  172 

Island,  N.Z.,  194,  197 

"  Spiral  "  grading  and  tunnelling, 
„  43.  195,  233 

"Split  fences,"  236 

Spooner,  C,  E.,  77 

Stanford,  Leland,  60,  62,  65,  70 

Stanley,  139 

Stanleyville,   151 


Stattnitz,  94 

Steel,  first  used  for  bridges,  260 

Steelton,  254,  255,  258 

Stelvio  road,  163,  170,  277 

Stephen,  Mount,  230 

Stephenson,   George,   17,    19,  30, 
46,  49-52,  308 

Steyr  River,  94 

Stoney  Creek  Bridge,  237-8 

Plain,  the,  123 

"Straight  Line,"  the  longest  in 
the  world,  270 

Stretensk,  201,  211,  212 

Styria,  91 

Suakin,  159,  160 

Sudan — 

Railways,  153,  154,  156,  158 
Upper,  157,  158 
Work  of  the  Government,  160, 
161 

Sudan  Development  and  Explora- 
tion Co.,  158,  1 60 

"Sudd,"  160 

Suez  Canal,  212,  213 

Gulf,  159 

Sukkur,  250 

Superior,  Lake,  226-7,  23°»  3°9 

Swakopmund,  79,  81,  82,  84,  85, 

87 

Sweden,  bridges,  260 
Switchback  grading,  219 
Switzerland — 

Alps,  the,   162 

Financing  the  St.  Gotthard,  33 

Railways,  216 

Tunnelling  in,  30 
Sydney,  177,  190 

railway  to  Paramatta,  176 

•  railway  to  Queensland,  182 

Tabuk,  124,  125 
Tacoma,  318 

Takasaki-Naoyetsu  railway,  307 
Tamboraque,  134 
Tanganyika,  149-50 
Tasmanian  Sea,  193 
Tauern  Range,  93,  98 

Tunnel,  98-101 

Taugevand,  264,  265,  266 
Tcheliabinsk,  200,  202 
Tcheliabinsk-Kourgan,  199 
Teichl  River,  94 
Telephone  across  Victoria  Falls, 

first  use,  143-4 
Tennessee  Pass,  169 


INDEX 


333 


Fessin  River,  35 

rexas  forests,  73 

Fhompson  River  Canyon,  239 

Fhorndike,  William,  135-6 

Fientsin,  292 

Figris  Valley,  123 

Fioumen,  199,  205 

Fiticaca,  Lake,  136,  137,  279 

Fobol,  the,  202 

Fokio,  304,  305,  307 

Kakasaki  railway,  306 

Sendai  railway,  306 

Yokohama  railway,  305 

folosa,  274 
roltec  Bridge,  169 

Tunnel,  169 

fomsk,  199,  205,  213 
fong-King-Sing,  General,  291-2 
fongshan,  291,  293 
'Topographers'  Gulch,"  321 
Porano  Range,  317,  318 
Toronto,  48 

'Toy  "  railway,  Festiniog,  76-9 
"rack-layer,  the,  146 
Vaining-bund,  252,  253 
Vansandine    railway,    the,    270, 

274 

Vans-Baikal  railway,  201 
Vans-Continental  railway — 

First  Canadian,  224-39 

Proposed  Australian,  189-93 
^  United  States,  first,  59-75 
Vans-Norwegian  railway,  262 
Vans-Siberian  railway,   198-213, 

293.  299,  300 
ransvaal — 

Cost  of  railways,  140 

Negro  labour,  283 
Vemola  River,  35 
'rieste,  91,  92,  101 
risanna  Viaduct,  90 
rollhatten,  262 
• —  Falls,  260 
'sumeb,  79,  85 
'uchili  River,  286 
ugela  Bridge,  155 
'upungato,  274 
'urnagain  Arm,  113 
wo-foot  gauge,  78 

ddevalla-Wenersborg-Herljunga 

railway,  260 
Uganda,   160 
Jnion    Pacific   railway,    63,    70, 

171,  198 


United     Kingdom,     mileage     in 
1870,  289 

United  States- 
First  transcontinental,  59-75 
Mileage  in  1870,  289 
Railway  interests,  112,  239,  295 
Railways,  176,  185,  208 

Upsallata  Station,  273 

Ural   Mountains,    199,   201,   205, 
213 

Usakos,  86 

Usamburu,  150 

Usui  Pass,  307 

Valparaiso,  270 

Vancouver,  107,  224 

Vasquez,  174 

Verrugas  Bridge,  132-4,  136,  138 

"Verrugas  fever,"  133-5 

Verrugas  River,  132 

Viaducts,  overhanging  principle, 

257 
Victoria,  176,  184 

Bridge  (Zambesi),  142-4,  157 

Desert,  190 

Falls,  142-4 

— -  Jubilee    Bridge    (St.     Law- 
rence), 51-4 
Vienna,  91,  93-4 
Villa  Bocage,  282,  287 
Villach,  10 1 
Vladivostok,  200,  201,   202,  211, 

212 
Vossevangen,  263,  264,  266,  267, 

269 
"V-s witches,"  130-32,  180,  274 

Wadi  Haifa,  153 

Waian  timber  trestle,  the,   197 

Wales,  North,  Toy  railway,  76- 

87 

Walkaway,   189 

Walker,  Messrs.  C.  H.  &  Co.,  276 
Wallula  Pacific  railway,  28 
Wankie  coalfield,   142 
Wapata  Mountain,  233 
Wash-outs,  219-20 
Wellington,  194 
West  Indies,  240 
Westinghouse  Electric  Co.,  56-7 
White  ants,  142,  284 
White  de  luxe  express,  158 
White  Horse,  104,  105,  108,  109, 

no 
•  Horse  summit,  no 


334 


INDEX 


White  Nile  Bridge,  157-8 

Pass,  105,  no,  in 

Pass  and  Yukon  line,  105-12 

Pass  summit,  no,  in 

"White  Tiger,"  the,  289,  296 
Whitton,  John,  178-80 
Whitworth  &  Co.,  Messrs.,  200, 

206 

Wicklow,  22-23 
Windhuk,  82  :   ^ 

Wingatui  Viaduct,  196-7 
Winnipeg,  224 
Wochenier  Tunnel,  97-8 
"Wooden  flanges,"  46 
Woosung,  290,  296 
Wurzner  Save  Valley,  97 

Yablonovoi  Range,  209 
Yamagata,  Prince,  306 
Yarmuk  River,  122 


Yellow  fever,  215 

Yellow  Gorge.  See  Amarillo  Gorge 

River  Bridge,  299 

Yellowhead  Pass,  230 
Yellowstone  River,  320 
Yenisei  Bridge,  204 

River,  201,  204 

Yokohama,  305 
Yukon  River,  104,  108 
Yun-nan,  301-2 

railway,  301-4 

Yun-nan-Sen,  302 

Zambesi    River,    142,     147,    150, 

281,  282 
Zigzag  grading,  177-81,  187,  219 

the  Great,  178-80 

Zlatoost,  199,  202 
Zyrkousounsk   Mountain   Chain, 

206 


THE  END 


Richard  Clay  &  Sotu,  Limittd,  London 


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